Soft Power of Small States: A Case Study of Mongolia

Introduction. The experience of recent decades shows small countries — though characterized by relatively limited foreign policy capacity — can defend their interests through ‘soft power’. Being obviously inferior to greater powers in military, political and economic aspects, small countries seek to compensate for their vulnerability with softer methods of influence. Nowadays, Mongolia is a classic case of a small country under the influence of such great powers as Russia, China, and the United States to successfully employ soft power tools. Goals. The article aims to identify where and how Mongolia uses soft power in its foreign policy. Materials and methods. The study primarily explores Mongolia’s official documents dealing with its national security and foreign policy, international initiatives of Ulaanbaatar, statements of Mongolian executives on relations with foreign partners, media materials. The employed research methods include the comparative, narrative, and retrospective ones. Results. There are three most promising lines for soft power in contemporary Mongolia’s foreign policy. The first one is that the country presents itself as a successful young democracy in the heart of Asia capable of becoming a model for a number of other small countries in the region. The second one is the policy of de facto neutrality manifested in refusal to deploy nuclear weapons and foreign military bases in Mongolian territory, as well as the active participation in UN peacekeeping operations. Finally, the third soft power line (to be perceived as one) is Ulaanbaatar’s active promotion of its mediation role to resolve urgent problems localized in Northeast Asia. Maintaining friendly relations with virtually all Northeast Asian states, Mongolia seeks to become a platform for international negotiations similar to that of Switzerland. Conclusions. Thus, soft power for Ulaanbaatar is an important two-sided tool supposed, firstly, to accelerate international influence and, secondly, to ensure national security and sovereignty.

1. Battsetseg G. Mongolia welcomes a return visit of DPRK foreign affairs minister. On: Montsame News Agency. Politics. Posted on December 10, 2018. Available at: https://montsame.mn/ru/read/173860 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Russ.)

2. Battulga Kh.: ‘Archives are somewhat key tools to implement Mongolia’s soft power policy’. On: Montsame News Agency. News of Mongolia. Posted on July 6, 2019. Available at: https://montsame.mn/en/read/194966 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

3. Bayarkhuu D. Mongolia and DPRK: Celebrating the 70th anniversary of relations. Available at: http://www.baabar.mn/article/mongol-uls-bnasau-iin-khariltsaanii-70-jil (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

4. Binderyaa Ch. T. Sükhbaatar: ‘Mongolia’s armed forces lost not a single battle in the whole of the last century’. On: Ödriyn Sonin (Daily News). Posted on August 18, 2021. Available at: https://dnn.mn/t-sүkhbaatar-өngөrsөn-zuun-zhiliyn-tүүkhend-mongolyn-zevsegt-khүchin-oroltsson-neg-ch-dayn-tulaandaa-yalagdazh-үzeegүy/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

5. Borko Yu. A. (ed.) Small States of Western Europe: Economic Problems. Collected papers. Moscow: Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences (RAS), 1987. 214 p. (In Russ.)

6. Business meeting to promote another window of Mongolia in accordance with the foreign policy strategy. On: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia (website). Posted on March 6, 2021. Available at: http://mfa.gov.mn/59069 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

7. Chong A. The Foreign Policy Potential of ‘Small States Soft Power’ Information Strategies. On: CiteSeerX — scientific literature digital library. Available at: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.408.4444&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

8. Concept of the National Security of Mongolia. On: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia (website). Posted on December 26, 2014. Available at: http://www.mfa.gov.mn/?p=14968 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

9. Constitution of Mongolia. On: Unified Legal Information System (Mongolia). Ratified on January 13, 1992. Available at: https://legalinfo.mn/mn/detail/367 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

10. Declaration on the strategic partnership between Mongolia and the United States of America. On: Office of President of Mongolia (website). Posted on August 1, 2019. Available at: https://president.mn/en/2019/08/01/declaration-on-the-strategic-partnership-between-mongolia-and-the-united-states-of-america/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

11. Dierkes J., Jargalsaikhan M. What Mongolia gains by playing host to a historic Trump-Kim summit. On: The Diplomat Magazine. Posted on March 17, 2018. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2018/03/what-mongolia-gains-by-playing-host-to-a-historic-trump-kim-summit/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

12. Ease of Doing Business Index 2020. On: World Bank Group (website). 2020. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/business-enabling-environment/doing-business-legacy (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

13. Erdenetuyaa D. Zh. Enkhsaikhan: ‘Mongolia is losing a historical opportunity to strengthen its reputation’. On: News.mn Agency. Society. Interview. Posted on October 13, 2020. Available at: https://news.mn/r/2359366/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

14. Foreign Trade 2020. On: Statistical Database. Foreign Trade. 2020. Available at: https://www.1212.mn//stat.aspx?LIST_ID=976_L14# (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

15. Freedom in the World 2021. Mongolia. On: Freedom House. 2021. Available at: https://freedomhouse.org/country/mongolia/freedom-world/2021 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

16. Golman M. I. Mongoliya — intermediary and partner of North Korea. On: New Eastern Outlook (online magazine). Posted on August 8, 2014. Available at: https://ru.journal-neo.org/2014/08/08/mongoliya-posrednik-i-partner-kndr/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Russ.)

17. Hey J. A. K. Introducing small state foreign policy. In: Hey J. A. K. (ed.) Small States in World Politics. Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior. Boulder; London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2003. Pp. 2-13. (In Eng.)

18. Human Capital Index 2020. On: World Bank Group (website). OKR. The Human Capital Index 2020 Update: Human Capital in the Time of COVID-19. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34432 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

19. Ignatov I. A. Mongolia’s mediation and peacekeeping role in the framework of the concept of a ‘third neighbor’ on the Korean Peninsula. Far Eastern Studies. 2020. No. 6. Pp. 6–14. (In Russ.)

20. Keohane R. Lilliputians’ dilemmas: Small states in international politics. International Organization. 1969. Vol. 23. No. 2. Pp. 291–310. (In Eng.)

21. Khaliun N. Mongolia’s prime-minister pays visit to Aung San Suu Kyi. On: Montsame News Agency. Politics. Posted on May, 15 2017. Available at: https://montsame.mn/ru/read/160430 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Russ.)

22. Kosyrev D. Negotiations on Korea: Who needs achievements with failures like this? On: RIA Novosti (news agency). Posted on December 22, 2006. Available at: https://ria.ru/20061222/57599531.html (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Russ.)

23. Kyrgyzstan choses to follow in Mongolia’s footsteps. Mongoliya segodnya. December 18, 2011. P. 5. (In Russ.)

24. Miliate B. The surprising potential of Mongolian-Myanmar relations. On: The Diplomat Magazine. Posted on December 4, 2013. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2013/12/the-surprising-potential-of-mongolian-myanmar-relations/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

25. Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan: A meeting of two presidents reviewed. Mongoliya segodnya. April 4, 2012. P. 7. (In Russ.)

26. Mongolia is ready to gain access to the Sea of Japan via a special economic zone. On: ZabInfo.ru (online media outlet of Transbaikalia). Posted on August 30, 2012. Available at: http://zabinfo.ru/93313 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Russ.)

27. Mongolia is the heart of democracy. Mongoliya segodnya. April 26, 2013. P. 3. (In Russ.)

28. Mongolia’s international security and nuclear-weapon-free status. On: United Nations Digital Library. Posted on November 20, 2000. Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/427879?ln=ru (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

29. Nye J. S. Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. Novosibirsk; Moscow: Trendy, 2006. 224 p. (In Russ.)

30. Nye S. J. Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. New York: Basic Books, 1990. 307 p. (In Eng.)

31. Nye S. J. Soft Power. The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, 2004. 192 p. (In Eng.)

32. On International Cooperation Foundation. Decree of the Government of Mongolia of 30 March 2013. On: Unified Legal Information System (Mongolia). Available at: https://legalinfo.mn/mn/detail/9128 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

33. President of Mongolia Ts. Elbegdorj takes part in the ‘Tea of Coffee’ TV program. On: Youtube.com. Posted on April 26, 2014. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J6k18TCCELU (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Mong.)

34. Promoting Mongolia Abroad Program. On: MongolNow.com (online media outlet). Newsfeed. Posted on August 27, 2020. Available at: http://www.mongolnow.com/programma-populyarizatsiya-mongolii-za-rubezhom/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Russ.)

35. Ranking Web of Universities. 2020. On: Webometrics Ranking of World Universities. Available at: http://www.webometrics.info/en/Asia/Mongolia%20 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

36. Rodionov V. Foreign policy of President Kh. Battulga (2017–2020). The Mongolian Journal of International Affairs. 2020. Vol. 21. Pp. 91–100. (In Eng.)

37. Rothstein R. Alliances and Small Power. New York, London: Columbia University Press, 1968. 331 p. (In Eng.)

38. Rutherford K. The Hu brings Mongolian metal to no. 1 on Hard Rock Digital Song Sales Chart. On: Billboard pro. Chart beat. Posted on April 18, 2019. Available at: https://www.billboard.com/pro/the-hu-mongolian-metal-number-1-hard-rock-digital-song-sales/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

39. Serjav B. Peace delegations of the Mongolian People’s Republic and their role at earliest stages of bilateral relations. In: Batbayar Ts. (ed.) The Role of People’s Diplomacy in Post-War Mongolian-Japanese Relations: Past, Present, Future. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Society for Japanese Studies, 2019. Pp. 41–55. (In Mong.)

40. Soft Power Survey 2018/19. On: Monocle magazine. Affairs. Posted on 21 December 2018. Available at: https://monocle.com/film/affairs/soft-power-survey-2018-19/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

41. The Global Competitiveness Report 2019. In: Schwab K. (ed.). WEForum. Cologny; Geneva: WEF, 2019. 666 p. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

42. The Good Country Index 2021. Available at: https://index.goodcountry.org/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

43. The Military Balance 2021. On: Fact Military. Reference Books and Encyclopedias. 2021. Available at: http://factmil.com/load/spravochniki/the_military_balance/the_military_balance_2021/10-1-0-7108 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

44. The World Bank in Mongolia. On: The World Bank (website). Overview. Posted on November 24, 2021. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/mongolia/overview#1 (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

45. The World Bank in Small States. On: The World Bank (website). Where We Work. Overview. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/smallstates/overview (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

46. Thurer D. The perception of small states: Myth and reality. In: Goetschel L. (ed.) Small States Inside and Outside the European Union: Interests and Policies. Boston: Kluwer, 1998. Pp. 33–42. (In Eng.)

47. Vandenbosch A. The small states in international politics and organization. The Journal of Politics. 1964, May. Vol. 26. No. 2. Pp. 293–312. (In Eng.)

48. Vital D. The Inequality of States: A Study of the Small Power in International Relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967. 198 p. (In Eng.)

49. Wishnick E. Mongolia: Bridge or buffer in Northeast Asia? On: The Diplomat Magazine. Posted on June 19, 2019. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/mongolia-bridge-or-buffer-in-northeast-asia/ (accessed: January 16, 2022). (In Eng.)

50. Zimin B. N. Small though developed countries of Western Europe: Theoretical outcomes of research. Izvestiya RAN. Seriya Geograficheskaya. 1993. No. 2. Pp. 95–104. (In Russ.)