Introduction. Economic conditions to have experienced by the Issyk-Kul Sart Kalmyks of Semirechenskaya Oblast in the early 20th century remain uninvestigated in historical literature, which makes the study relevant enough. Goals. The work aims to consider the traditional Sart Kalmyk system of farming, define its type, and analyze the transition to settled life. Materials and methods. The study employs both general scientific and specific historical research methods, including that of statistical analysis. The work examines materials from Russia’s central archives, as well as statistical survey data on economic and land use practices of the Kyrgyz — including households of Sart Kalmyks — and Russian old-timers collected in Przhevalsky Uyezd (Semirechenskaya Oblast) under the guidance of P. P. Rumyantsev in 1913. Analysis of statistical materials yields a reconstruction of the Sart Kalmyk economy in the early 20th century and determines its type. Results. The Sart Kalmyks to have inhabited several localities around Karakol in Issyk-Kul (Przhevalsky) Uyezd were engaged in livestock breeding and, in part, crop farming, i.e. were following their traditional economic practices. Conclusions. However, by the beginning of the 20th century the Sart Kalmyks no longer possessed sufficient pastures and livestock to specialize in breeding only, and were forced to tackle arable farming too, though the latter played no crucial role in their economy remaining an auxiliary sector. The lack of arable land and hayfields forced the Sart Kalmyks to engage in additional occupational activities. So, the population was characterized by a semi-sedentary type of farming, i.e. the period witnessed a change in the Sart Kalmyks’ economic system proper and respective conditions at large.

Introduction. The creation of the Central State Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan located in Almaty (the former national capital) had been prepared by the entire course of museum construction in Orenburg. Chronologically, the process covers almost a century (1831–1929) hereafter referred to as the ‘Orenburg period’. The latter did play a prominent role in the history of the Central Museum. As is known, the city of Orenburg was the capital of the Kirghiz (Kazakh) Autonomous Republic as part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1920–1925. Goals. The article aims to study original features and trends to have influenced the shaping and development of Orenburg’s museum network as a complex of conditions and factors that had impacts on the formation of the Central State Museum of Kazakhstan. Materials and methods. The article primarily analyzes archival sources, official acts by the People’s Commissariat for Education of the Kirghiz (Kazakh) ASSR — the authority that was to supervise museum affairs in the Republic. The employed methods — contextual, discursive, value orientations ones and others — constitute an interdependent and complementary unity that makes it possible to realistically represent the whole formation process experienced by the main museum of the Republic. Results. It was the Orenburg period that witnessed the laying of organizational foundations for the future Central Museum, accumulated essential scientific/methodological experiences and human resources that proved of utmost importance, especially at the initial stage of its functioning. The Orenburg period began in 1831 when by order of the Orenburg Governor P. P. Suchtelen a ‘museum’ was opened at the Neplyuev Military School. Conclusions. In the prerevolutionary era and the first decade of Soviet power, there was virtually no roadmap (principles, forms, tasks of museums, etc.) for museum construction in Kazakhstan. That resulted in the unsystematic and somewhat spontaneous nature of the then efforts aimed at organizing the museum network. Nevertheless, it was during the Orenburg period that certain experiences of organizing museum works were obtained, the latter to become most useful when it came to create the Central Museum proper.

Introduction. Since Mongolia joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance it became obliged to coordinate its planning activities with other member countries. And the planning coordination process proper essentially included arrangements of bilateral consultations between Mongolia’s planning agency and those of corresponding member countries. Goals. So, the study aims at examining earliest bilateral consultations held by Mongolia’s Planning Commission in September–October of 1963. Materials and methods. The article analyzes documents from the Russian State Archive of Contemporary History and the Russian State Archive of the Economy. The key research methods employed are the comparative historical and typological ones. Results. The mentioned bilateral consultations were discussing two groups of questions, namely: a list of enterprises the Mongolian party was going to construct with the aid of other CMEA member countries, and lists of goods to be exchanged between the involved countries through the balance method. Conclusions. The bilateral consultations between the MPR’s Planning Commission and planning agencies of CMEA member governments held in September–October of 1963 proved an absolutely new line of activity for Mongolian economists. The former’s key points were discussions over lists of construction and other facilities required by the Mongolian party. And the almost full absence of data pertaining to construction funding sources implies the negotiation process — at that very stage — was far from being complete. It was the Soviet Union that was still expected to invest most in Mongolia’s economy and bear the bulk of responsibility for the to be constructed enterprises. The ‘greediest’ government engaged in discussions over economic aid to Mongolia was that of Romania, other CMEA member countries to have clustered into a group of so called ‘averages’. The latter did not differ much in scales of to be rendered aid, while essentials of their sector-specific investments did vary to some extent. 

Introduction. The article analyzes and introduces into scientific discourse a set of archival documents included in Collection 597 — ‘Astrakhan Diocesan Committee of the Missionary Orthodox Society’ — of the State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast dealing with the Committee’s earliest years and key directions of its activity. Materials and methods. The study employs comparative and historical/descriptive methods of research. The work analyzes the mentioned archival documents of 1870–1874 containing materials on work activity management within the Committee, personnel and financial policies, reports on its grand opening and the formation of a general meeting, analytical notes and appeals of committee members, interdepartmental correspondence on organizational issues, correspondence with the Orthodox clergy of Astrakhan Governorate and their reports, letters about translation, publishing, and academic efforts of the Committee. Results. The paper introduces a set of documents related to the earliest years of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee. Conclusions. The materials discovered in Collection 597 (State Archive of Astrakhan Oblast) and specifically those covering the earliest years of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee do add to the panorama of missionary tools and techniques once employed by the Russian Orthodox Church in Kalmyk Steppe throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mention personalities to have served as members of the Committee, clarify as to sources and amounts of financing, problems and prospects faced by Orthodox Christian missionaries in Kalmyk uluses (districts). The creation of Astrakhan Diocesan Committee gave rise to extended translation and publishing activities, intensified the training of missionaries supposed to spread Orthodox Christianity in Kalmyk Steppe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. 

Introduction. The article deals with activities of institutes of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences evacuated to Bashkiria in 1941–1943. Goals. The article aims at revealing functioning features of Ukrainian scientific institutions, their research efforts, and academic results in the mentioned period. Materials and methods. The work focuses on archival documents and published sources. The principles of historicism, objectivity and scholarship proved key to analyses of sources, evaluations of events and phenomena. The study employs a variety of research methods, such as the comparative historical, chronological, retrospective, logical ones, etc. Results. The insights into archival documents and published sources depict academic institutions of the Ukrainian SSR during their WWII evacuation in the Bashkir ASSR, outline features of their research activities and actual impacts in military and economic endeavors. The period introduced cardinal changes not only in the scope of their work but also influenced the shaping of new scientific directions. Despite the extreme wartime conditions, the researchers were striving to implement research tasks that had been determined in Ukraine. They were conducting scientific research, undertaking expeditionary trips to rural Bashkiria further to be further described in published papers. They also joined efforts with Bashkir scientists to examine various problems of the autonomous Republic, thus not only continuing research and exploration work but also taking an active part in pursuing the assigned responsible missions. Conclusions. In the years under review, the stay of institutes and scientists of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Bashkiria became a most fruitful and productive period, which is evidenced by the scope of published scientific works. Joint efforts with scientists of the Republic and other evacuated Soviet scientific institutions and universities proved an excellent school for them to gain experiences, resulted in the emergence of new research areas, and the expansion of scientific and industrial ties. 

Introduction. The article provides statistical interpretations of data contained in volume 4 of The Memory. Sanl that publishes an annotated list of ca. 9,500 Red Army soldiers and officers largely conscripted in the Kalmyk ASSR — and subsequently classified as KIAs and MIAs between 1941 and 1945. Goals. The work examines the mentioned edition and attempts a respective database (supplemented with statistical analysis) of Soviet Kalmykia’s natives drafted into the Red Army in 1941–1945. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on the annotated list of casualties among Soviet troops introduced in volume 4 of The Memory. Sanl. The wide range of research methods employed includes both specifically historical and general scientific ones. The need for statistical analysis leads to an active use of the statistical method and that of extrapolation. Results. The analysis reveals an essential number of repetitions (personalities) characterized by mistakes, inaccuracies, and discrepancies. So, the edition mentions both outdated and contemporary geographic names. Despite all this, the compiled and corrected database involves extensive statistical data that may yield an efficient prosopographic analysis of Red Army personnel conscripted in Kalmykia during the Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945.

Introduction. The article publishes one of the last letters submitted by Khan Ayuka of the Kalmyks to the Russian Emperor Peter the Great. Goals. The work aims at introducing newly discovered correspondence dealing with Russian-Kalmyk relations in the first quarter of the 18th century. Materials. The document analyzed is contained in Collection 119 (‘Kalmyk Affairs’) of Imperial Russia’s Foreign Policy Archive that houses quite a number of written sources in Kalmyk history. The never-published document is the first Kalmyk letter from the mentioned archive to be made available to the public. Results. The paper provides a brief historical review of the events described in Khan Ayuka’s letter. The most precious document sheds light on multiple circumstances to have preceded the outburst of the internal Kalmyk conflict in 1723. Conclusions. The examined 1724 letter is an invaluable source in the history of Kalmyk Khanate that shall essentially add to further understanding of 18th-century Russian-Kalmyk relations. So, the text clarifies Khan Ayuka’s stance on the emerging internal crisis. Having been one of those who wrecked the negotiation process between Chakdorjab’s sons, Ayuka turns to the Russian Emperor for assistance in his letter. The domestic conflict not only significantly weakened his positions as Khan but also resulted in external threats to Kalmyk Khanate at large. 

The Yakutia Comprehensive Research Expedition of 1925–1930 proved a most essential stage in the intellectual discovery of Russia’s Arctic and North. Even nowadays the insights into climate and natural resources, socioeconomic and demographic analyses, living conditions assessments remain as topical. It is noteworthy that the efforts undertaken were largely humanitarian, thus making the collected data on socioeconomic history and everyday life rich enough. Ivan Soikkonen was heading the Yakut Ethnographic Subgroup in 1926–1927, the latter to have been working in the central part of the Republic. Long-term stationary observations resulted in materials covering ethnic culture of the Yakuts, including detailed descriptions of household life, economic activities, and family relations. Soikkonen’s papers are distinguished by ‘photographic’ reflections of rural Yakutia’s local realities typical for earliest decades of the 20th century. Goals. The article aims to introduce into scientific circulation one manuscript by the Russian ethnographer Ivan P. Soikkonen containing ethnographic materials from late 1920s Central Yakutia. Materials. The manuscript titled ‘Winter Day of the Yakut Woman’ is stored together with other unpublished Yakutia-related materials of Soikkonen at the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg Branch). Results. The expedition materials are invaluable sources for humanities research. The manuscript examined contains interesting facts that shed light on social relations, standards and qualities inherent to rural life refracted in the mirror of everyday gender. The phenomena dominating throughout the to be presented document is that of natural winter cold which limits, restrains, and regulates activities of a Yakut woman in winter everyday life in earliest decades of the past century. Soikkonen’s notes make it possible to examine aspects of the economic determinism among Yakuts to have arisen from natural and climatic conditions of the region in the period prior to the Soviet modernization in interdisciplinary perspectives. Conclusions. The paper is first to publish the manuscript, only some small fragments have been cited before. The article pioneers the interpretation of  Soikkonen’s materials from the standpoint of the anthropology of cold. The author comments and transcribes Yakut terms contained in the manuscript.

Introduction. The contemporary transformation of the place and role attributed to shamanism in social structures cannot be explained in isolation from social and political trends. Goals. The study aims at revealing causes of shamanism’s revival in post-Soviet Russia, analyzing the latter’s mechanisms, and attempts an efficient policy roadmap that could be followed by the Government. Materials and methods. The comparative historical method identifies structural inconsistencies between official clerics and institutions supposed to sustain intrasystemic balance in human society — and individual shamans performing similar functions in the so called ‘big universe’ that additionally comprises the world of natural phenomena and that of spirits. Results. The paper shows that when social institutions headed by authorities are capable of securing acceptable solutions for most problems of an individual citizen, shamanism tends to turn vividly oppositional and retains its potentials in ‘peripheries’ only — within ‘gaps’ of social systems. Meanwhile, the experiences of post-Soviet Buryatia attest to that in acute crisis shamanism may be recruited again to tackle actual mundane objectives. In this case, it becomes an important structural element to a wider social relations system with boundaries of society proper further extended. Conclusions. The paper asserts the latter phenomenon may imply an efficient strategy be incorporation of shamans into the public law field with limited allocations of specific resources owned by the Government only. This may result in that the former’s spiritual potentials and impacts be used to common advantage — to avoid takeovers by spiritual leaders from peripheries of social systems. 

Introduction. The lack of known Middle Neolithic burial complexes in Baikal-Yenisei Siberia makes pottery finds from archaeological sites a key source to explore the cultural and historical situation in the region. According to AMS 14C-dates in the range of ~6,8–6,3 ka cal BP in the territory of Baikal-Yenisei Siberia, two types of ceramics are widespread — Posolsk and Ust-Belaya types. Goals. The study seeks to identify technological and cultural traditions of Middle Neolithic pottery. Materials and methods. The work examines Ust-Belaya and Posolsk type pottery samples from fifteen excavated sites of Baikal-Yenisei Siberia. The paper describes morphological and decorative patterns inherent thereto, provides technical and technological analyses following the methodology of A. Bobrinsky. The molding masses of eighteen Ust-Belaya type vessels and sixteen Posolsk type vessels have been studied with the aid of a binocular microscope. Results. In all cases, ferruginous sandy clay containing quartz sand had served as initial plastic raw material. Molding masses are characterized mainly by an unmixed one-component composition without artificial additives. In two cases, quartz grus has been identified, in another there are traces of organic matter (possibly added intentionally). Vessels of the Posolsk type have closed paraboloid forms with a weak profiling of the upper part and a sharpened bottom. The ornament is localized in the upper part of the vessel and is represented by horizontal ‘receding stick’ rows or drawn lines. The composition below ends with separate shapes, such as triangles or short vertical lines. The rim is decorated with prints of a comb stamp and has a line of round holes which is located over the line made by stick through drawing or receding techniques. The study of molding masses of sixteen Posolsk vessels demonstrates an unmixed one-component composition. In all cases, ferruginous sandy clay had been used as initial plastic raw material. The analysis of the modeling features of Middle Neolithic ceramics makes it possible to formulate hypothetical production programs of theirs. To check the latter, experiments were carried out to model the Ust-Belaya and Posolsk types of vessels. Technical and technological analyses, experiments conducted, and comparisons of models with archaeological vessels reveal technological traditions generally characteristic of Middle Neolithic pottery, such as the method of zonal patchwork modeling in combination with walls knocking out techniques, as well as the use of other vessels as base forms. So, Ust-Belaya vessels could have been completely made on such base forms, while upper parts of Posolsk vessels were profiled after removal from such forms. Knocking out tools for Posolsk ceramics included cord and carved shovels, and for Ust-Belaya type — smooth shovels sometimes wrapped with a woven net. Design patterns of the rim are also different. Conclusions. For the preparatory stage of Middle Neolithic ceramics production, there was a stable tradition of using local sandy clays without additives. The modeling principles common for the two types, along with the absence of flat-bottomed forms, reflect the same level of technological development and similar ideas about the making and functions of vessels, which does not necessarily indicate any ethnocultural closeness of culture bearers. Different traditions of morphology, techniques and decoration indicate that the pottery types belong to different populations. In Posolsk ceramics, there are autochthonous features bringing it closer to the Early Neolithic Khaita pottery. Ceramics of the Ust-Belaya type has no visible origins in the Early Neolithic of the region, which indicates its non-local origin. In addition, the materials of the campsites indicate that the bearers of these traditions had tended to choose different habitats.

Introduction. The article analyzes materials from one reference site of the Caspian culture in the Northern Caspian. Two main achievements of prehistoric society — emergence of metalworking and that of productive economy — are associated with this culture. Goals. The paper aims to identify cultural and chronological complexes inherent to the site of Kurpezhe-Molla. So, the study seeks to characterize stone and ceramic inventories, their cultural attributions, attempts a comparative analysis of pottery production techniques in different cultures, and determines their absolute ages. Materials and methods. The work focuses on materials from Kurpezhe-Molla — a key site of the Caspian culture. The latter was being excavated from 1980 to 1989 to have yielded publications covering the first five years only. This paper is first to publish and consider complexes of all years of research. The employed research methods include the typological, planigraphic, technical/technological, and radiocarbon ones. Results. Typological analysis makes it possible to identify ceramics of the Khvalynsk and later cultural types (in addition to ceramics of the Caspian culture proper). This was confirmed by that the stone artifacts included some typical for the Early Eneolithic. Technical and technological characteristics of the Caspian and Khvalynsk pottery samples prove similar enough but there are some differences. The work estimates an earlier age of the Caspian culture and a later one for that of Khvalynsk. Conclusions. Comprehensive insights into respective materials attest to a complex character of the site of Kurpezhe-Molla. Artifacts of the Caspian culture proper are paralleled by materials of the Khvalynsk type. The radiocarbon dates obtained imply the Caspian materials be referred to an earlier period. The paper traces both similar and distinctive features inherent to typology and manufacturing techniques characteristic of the archaeological cultures examined. This may indicate the Khvalynsk ceramic tradition had evolved from the Caspian one, or serve evidence of their coexistence at a certain stage.

Introduction. The paper discusses glazed pottery of the pre-Mongol era discovered within excavation section 44 of Bilär hillfort between 2015 and 2018. Earliest explorations of the archaeological site date back to the beginning of the 18th century but the first archaeological survey proper — that included a few shovel test pits — was conducted by A. Bashkirov in 1929. However, it was only in 1967 that A. Khalikov as head of the Bilär Archaeological Expedition arranged systematic investigation of the site. Studies of glazed ceramics from the pre-Mongol era became a priority area but its classification was never developed. Goals. So, the work attempts a description and systematization of the unique archaeological materials. Materials and methods. The work analyzes glazed pottery items discovered within excavation section 44 at the site of Bilär. The research methods employed for systematization are as follows: visual/descriptive, statistical, technological ones, those of comparative analysis and analogies. Results. The extensive glazed pottery collection examined attests to Volga Bulgaria had developed widest trade relations in the pre-Mongol period. The key directions included the Near and Middle East, Asia Minor, Rus, Byzantium, and the historical region of Shirvan (group of imports). Conclusions. The article yields a classification of glazed pottery items (both locally produced and imported ones), determines main trade directions and chronological frames for the latter to have arrived in the site. Insights into proportions between groups of imported ceramics and quantitative analysis make it possible to outline three chronological stages that essentially correspond to the heyday, apogee and decline of trade relations.

Introduction. One of the important problems of contemporary linguistics is the incomplete correspondence between some linguistic categories and actual conditions of language use, which makes it difficult to apply scientific concepts in pragmatic terms. In this regard, some categories of classical linguistics require further clarification in the light of new scientific achievements. Goals. So, the article aims at analyzing deictic microsystems of languages different in origin and grammatical type through synergistic research approaches with due account of achievements of classical linguistics and data on the new communication theory. Materials and methods. The work employs comprehensive methodology: comparison of the Russian and Tatar deictic verbal means is accompanied by cross-situational/component analysis applicable in communication theory. The combination of new and traditional methods makes it possible, firstly, to optimize the traditional time-tested methods of comparing languages of different origins, and, secondly, to correct results of the comparative study in a communicative aspect. The study focuses on materials of the Tatar and Russian languages, since the latter coexist in one region and closely interact via Russian-Tatar bilingualism. Results. The use of comprehensive communicative/linguistic techniques yields a described universal action (deictic) category — implementing spatial coordination of participants and speech objects — for languages of different types. The study identifies spatial communicative indicators common to languages, features of action processes and means of their expression. Particular attention is paid to differences in the implementation of spatial deixis in the languages compared. Conclusions. Grammatically and communicatively, deixis is central to Russian and Tatar pronominal systems. Regular deictic means include key types of pronouns, such as personal, possessive, personal-demonstrative, and demonstrative ones. Functional qualities of all other pronouns and non-pronominal deictics are determined through relations with these central types.

Introduction. The article evaluates the language situation and its dynamics in Tatarstan and other ethnic republics of the Volga Region in the context of new approaches to learning of languages of Russia’s peoples. In 2017, native languages were classified as a compulsory academic discipline at school, though with a legally stipulated right to choose such native language proper. Goals. The study aims at outlining the actual vectors of language processes and effects of the language policy nationwide through examples of the Tatar language in Tatarstan and languages of the Volga Region at large. Materials and methods. The work analyzes data from two research projects, namely: a mass survey of Tatarstan’s residents numbering 2,000 on their language use practices in public and private discourses conducted in July 2018 (the article focuses on language practices of ethnic Tatars); and a series of semi-formal interviews with representatives of the ethnic intelligentsia, public organizations, and the mass media in Tatarstan and in the five republics of the Volga Region (Bashkortostan, Mari El, Mordovia, Udmurtia, Chuvashia) on topical issues of language development held from June to November 2021 (a total of 48 interviews). Results. The sociological data make it possible to reveal key trends of linguistic development and the ratio of use between state languages (Russian and titular ones) in consumption of mass media and Internet products, in public discourses (office, stores, public institutions) and individual language practices. The data attest to a predominant use of Russian by ethnic Tatars in the context of expanding Russian-Tatar bilingualism, i.e. a steady continuation of the language shift inherited from the late Soviet era. Conclusions. The newly adopted agenda of teaching native languages has resulted in further expanded use of the Russian language, since — regardless of actual ethnic identities — some parents tend to choose Russian as a native language for their children, which leads to reduced numbers of students learning other native languages, a decrease in the demand for textbooks and teachers of the Volga peoples’ languages. This causes anxiety among the national intelligentsia and the public as to the future of linguistic and cultural diversity in Russia.

Goals. The article examines bear-related rudiments of Kalmyk folklore and draws semantic parallels with the bear cult of Tungus-Manchu and other Turko-Mongolian peoples to reconstruct Kalmyk mythoritual representations about this animal. Since quite a number of such mythoritual elements are represented in Kalmyk epic and folktales implicitly, it seems topical enough to reveal the former’s semantics. Materials and methods. The study focuses on The Song of Khan Zambal included in the Baga Tsokhor cycle of the Jangar epic. The employed research methods are structural/semantic, structural/typological, and comparative ones. Results. The attempted reconstruction attests to that mythological and ritual knowledge about the bear had been implicitly preserved in folklore foundations of Kalmyks, the ethnographic essentials proper to show extensive ties to those of Tungus-Manchu peoples. A set of ideas associated with the tradition of reciting the Jangar in long winter evenings and nights, epic motifs of brotherhood, hero’s sound sleep, and Savar’s moves along the moon road somewhat complete the Kalmyks’ knowledge of bear. These also indirectly confirm the assumption that Savar has a dual nature and is an anthropomorphic manifestation of a bear. In general, the image of Savar in epic space organically agrees with the ideas about bear articulated following the model — ‘ours among aliens’ and ‘alien to compatriots’.