Introduction. Thу article analyzes key socioeconomic undertakings of the PRC at the present stage. In China, the year 2021 has marked a completion of Xiaokang — ‘moderately prosperous’ — society construction. Through the years of reform and opening up, the traditional concept of Xiaokang society has become a strategic goal of China’s socialist modernization and a core of socialism’s theory with Chinese features. Goals. The article primarily aims at analyzing relationship between the concept of Xiaokang society and Xi Jinping’s newly proclaimed doctrine of ‘common prosperity’, compliance of socialist modernization strategies with Chinese specifics. Since the concept of ‘common prosperity’ implies not only economic but also political contexts, it requires extensive and deep sociopolitical insights into ways and mechanisms to be involved thereto, and it is as urgent to identify potential impacts on Chinese society. Materials and methods. The paper examines Chinese periodicals of the specified era, studies contemporary historiographic sources relating to the issue. The study of public policy focuses on policy articles and documents, fundamental works by Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, Xi Jinping, and the economist Li Yining. Results. Over the 40 years, the strategic goal of Chinese modernization has evolved from ‘Xiaokang level’ to ‘Xiaokang society’, and from ‘comprehensive Xiaokang society construction’ to ‘completeness of Xiaokang society in all aspects’. In addition, subtexts of the strategy has also made a significant leap — from equal emphases on material and spiritual components of civilization to strengthening of all five components, namely: material, spiritual, political, social, and environmental ones. The living standards have experienced fundamental changes: the problem of food and clothing (wenbao) has finally been solved, common well-being of the people increased, and absolute poverty of rural population eliminated. However, there are still some social issues to have remained unresolved throughout the construction of ‘moderately prosperous society’. Conclusions. The fulfillment of the ‘first century goal’ has required that the Government articulate a new goal for China’s economic and social development to deal with still existing problems, such as income inequality and social imbalance, which in turn may cause political instability and threaten the legitimacy of the ruling party’s power. In response to the growing need of the people for a better life and further economic growth of society, the PRC Government has introduced a new concept of social development — ‘common prosperity’ (gongtong fuyu). President Xi Jinping points out that ‘common prosperity is a necessary condition for socialism and an important feature of Chinese-style modernization’. 

Introduction. The paper provides a first historiographic insight into official ranks and social status of Russian diplomats to have been dispatched on diplomatic missions to leaders of nomadic military/political associations across Northern Central Asia in the 17th century. Goals. The study aims to determine essentials of how the Tsardom of Russia tended to perceive its counterparties’ status through the analysis of official positions and social backgrounds of Russian diplomats. Materials and methods. The article analyzes a wide range of published and unpublished documents, systemizes and generalizes qualitative and quantitative data pertaining to official ranks of Russian diplomats discovered in records management papers, such as Tsar’s ukazes, nakazes and reminder nakazes, as well as those referred to as stateyny spisok (list of officers) and otpiska voevody (governor’s report). Results. The work reveals diplomatic missions to Kirghiz and Teleut lands, Dzungaria and Mongolia were usually headed by offsprings of the nobility (deti boyarskie) and regular servicemen (nachalnye lyudi) — Cossack leaders, atamans, squadron (pyatidesyatnik) and section (desyatnik) commanders. However, it was not that rare when such diplomatic endeavors were entrusted to servicemen of lower ranks and, occasionally, representatives of indigenous (non-Russian) populations. Conclusions. In terms of 16th–17th century Russian ambassadorial semiotics, the choice of diplomats from commoners and those characterized by lower social status was definitely purposeful and aimed at demonstrating that Turkic and Mongolian nomadic rulers were to enjoy fewer honors due to a higher standing of the Russian Tsar. Since the Tsardom of Muscovy was seeking to gain control over the nomadic military/political alliances of Northern Central Asia and bring nomadic elites under ‘the higher hand of the monarch’, the appointments of lower-ranked servicemen as heads of diplomatic missions were to meet the goals (and logic) of Russian expansionist policy. Low ranks of dispatched diplomats indicated not only the Russian Tsar’s political superiority over nomadic rulers but also attested to that Russians already tended to perceive nomads as potential subjects of the Tsar.

Introduction. In the process of territorial expansion, Imperial Russia was seeking to implement internal policies, including that of Christianization. Christian missionary endeavors across Kazakh steppes were to involve not only Kazakh ethnic groups proper but also other populations to have emigrated from China in the 19th century. Goals. The study aims at exploring problems and consequences of Semirechye Kalmyks’ conversion to Orthodox Christianity after their arrival from China, revealing the role of missionaries in that Christianization campaign, determining key techniques and methods employed by the latter, identifying essentials and crucial events to have proved efficient thereto and based on the destruction of indigenous culture, traditions and lifestyle of ethnic groups who had been forced to stay away from their historical roots. Results. The paper analyzes archival sources to examine the history of how China’s emigrant Kalmyks acquired Russian citizenship and converted to Orthodox Christianity in the 1860s–1870s. In the aftermath of the Dungan Revolt, the refugee Kalmyks settled in Qapal, Sarkand, Koksu, Verny, Turgen and other areas of Semirechye. Fertile land plots were allotted for them to conveniently engage in agriculture, gardening and vegetable farming. Another goal was that they were thus to establish close relations with Russian peasants and learn the latter’s language, culture, and peculiarities of the newly adopted faith. Conclusions. The missionary activities and Kalmyks’ conversion to Orthodox Christianity resulted in acculturation characterized by that the newly baptized would often change their personal and family names and receive Russian Cossack peasant clothes in missionary shelters.

Introduction. In the 1920s and 1930s, one of the most important directions of Soviet nationalities policy was the building of Soviet nations on the basis of various ethnic groups. Utmost difficulties were to be faced when it came to identify small dispersed ethnic communities located in ethnocultural ‘borderlands’. In Stavropol Region, one such community were Sherets to have emerged as a result of historical synthesis of Kalmyk and Turkmen cultures and ethnic environments. Goals. The article seeks to analyze government policies towards Sherets and attempts a scientific understanding of their phenomenon in the Soviet era. Materials. The study examines archival documents housed by the State Archive of the Russian Federation, as well as other archival papers and published sources. Results. The work delineates main approaches to the study of Sherets in the prerevolutionary and Soviet periods. It shows that religion was chosen as a key identification factor for the group by Russian ethnographers and officials, which made it logical enough to cluster Stavropol Sherets with Turkmens. However, the Soviet approach rested on the primacy of primordialism and actual ethnic origins, and proclaimed Sherets an integral part of the Kalmyk people. The paper reveals main directions and mechanisms of work among Sherets at municipal, regional, and republican levels aimed at their rehabilitation and relocation to the native village of Kucherli in Turkmensky District. It is proved that Sherets — despite small numbers — sought to retain their identity based on clan system. The 1930s curtailment of the korenization policy resulted in accelerated assimilation of Sherets into the Turkmen population. 

Introduction. Since vectors of natural resources, construction and infrastructure development across the vast Soviet territories (including that of the Kazakh SSR) were determined by geographical aspects of correctional labor camps’ territorial organization, it was the geographical factor that proved crucial to the shaping of camps system proper. So, an insight into experiences of the Prorva (Astrakhan) Correctional Labor Camp is of certain interest. Goals. The study aims at assessing impacts of geographical factors on the shaping and functioning of the mentioned labor camp’s territorial organizational structure and economic activity between 1932 and 1950. Materials and methods. The work explores documents housed by the State Archive of the Russian Federation, Archive of Internal Affairs Ministry Department in Astrakhan Oblast, outcomes of history and geography research expeditions to Mangystau and Atyrau Regions of Kazakhstan undertaken in July 2021, geographical maps. The study employs a variety of research methods, such as general scientific (analysis, synthesis, mathematical and descriptive techniques), geographical (analytical tools of cartography, comparative, physical and economic geography, expeditionary, system territorial, and factorial methods) and historical (retrospective, comparative, structural approaches) ones. Results. The paper presents a geographical analysis of six localities, reveals territorial organizational structure of the camp (the latter to have covered northern and northeastern parts of the Caspian coastline), provides an assessment of physical and geographical conditions of the camp’s economic arrangements. The latter had predetermined the availability of rich biological sea resources. However, in general, the physical and geographical components of natural environment were unfavorable (arid climate, infertile soil cover, sparse vegetation) for commercial agricultural production. The study of economic and geographical factors shows different economic potentials across localities of the camp. The economic geographical factors resulted in the shaping and functioning of a territorial organizational structure primarily aimed at efficient industrial fishing practices. Conclusions. The geographical factors proved of utmost importance and served a basis for the development of fisheries in the northern and northeastern parts of the Caspian Sea. In addition, efforts were made to initiate agricultural production and construction activities that still were to play a secondary economic role due to unfavorable conditions.

Introduction. In the immediate aftermath of the Nazi defeat in Kalmykia’s territory, local Komsomol members initiated most essential efforts to restore ruined industrial facilities, buildings of public organizations, schools, took active part in agricultural works and war-supporting activities. Nonetheless, on 28 December 1943 the Kalmyk ASSR was abolished, the whole Kalmyk people were wrongly blamed and deported to Siberia. Goals. The article attempts an analytical insight into activities of Kalmykia’s Komsomol organization before the deportation and in the restoration period. Materials and methods. The study focuses on unpublished documents housed at the National Archive of Kalmykia and periodicals of those years. Results and conclusions. The analysis of archival papers shows despite a limited number of members the Komsomol organization did facilitate a successful revival of the Republic in the post-occupation era. However, the tremendous contribution was ignored when it came to repressions against the Kalmyks in December of 1943. On return from Siberia and during the restoration of autonomy in 1957, there was a slight increase in numbers of Komsomol members who showed great enthusiasm to reconstruct the Republic.

Introduction. The 260-year history of Russia Germans is still of interest to researchers. The Germans of Kalmykia, their history, life and culture remain somewhat understudied. Goals. The work aims at revealing circumstances to have surrouned the arrival and strengthening of Germans in Kalmykia, analyzes available sources for an overview of historical milestones experienced by the ethnic group in the Republic. To facilitate this, the paper shall consider reasons of the German immigration to Russia, provide a comprehensive description of the latter, reveal causes of the subsequent deportation and problems of rehabilitation and emigration. Materials. The study investigates archival sources, publications dealing with the history of Russia Germans, periodicals and author’s field data. Results. The analysis of sources yields a history of Kalmykia Germans from their arrival in nomadic territories of Bolshederbetovsky Ulus to the modern era. The perestroika witnessed mass migrations of Kalmykia Germans back to Germany to have resulted from the loss of mother tongue, and harsh economic conditions.

Introduction. The Sumagadha-Avadāna (‘Avadāna of Sumagadha’) is often mentioned in Oriental studies, including works on the history of classical Mongolian literature examining writings of Indo-Tibetan origin. This text is included in both the Tibetan- and Mongolian-language canonical Kangyur (Kanjur) editions. Despite frequent references, the former has neither been translated into Russian, nor there are any descriptions of its structure and content. Goals. So, the article attempts to fill the gap and aims at considering the narrative about Sayin Magada through the analysis of The Legend of Sayin Magada (Mong. Sayin Magada-yin domuγ), the latter being integral to the canonical collection of Kanjur in Mongolian. The work explores the text, describes its genre characteristics, identifies its structure, reveals contents, and investigates data contained in the colophon. Materials. The study focuses on the text titled ‘Sayin Magada-yin domuγ-i ögülegči kemekü’ (‘[Sutra] Narrating the Legend of Sayin Magada’) from the Eldeb (‘Collection of Sutras’) section of the Mongolian Kanjur (vol. 91). Results. The textual and content analysis of works by Tibetologists, Mongolists, and Sinologists dealing with writings of the avadāna genre included in the canon makes it possible to reveal key characteristics of the genre, describe the structure of the Mongolian text, and outline its content.

Introduction. Making public knowledge pertaining to Buddhist culture proves important and topical enough due to the steady growth of global significance attributed to East and Central Asia. Therefore, insights into monuments of Buddhist heritage represented in vast collections of Russia — at advanced academic and technological levels with an emphasis on the active use of digital technologies — shall yield solutions to quite a number of sociocultural development problems, and strengthen positions of our nation in Asia’s geopolitical environments. Goals. The study aims at analyzing the current state of the art in digitization of Tibetan Buddhism’s written heritage and assessing some promising AI related technologies development trends. Materials and methods. The study provides a comparative analysis of activities by the Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC) consortium, an oldest and most successful initiatives operating since 1999, for advanced approaches in this field. The use of artificial intelligence methods to solve the problem of creating a machine-readable text corpus of Buddhist writings and machine translation is considered as a promising direction. Results. The work discloses key principles of digitization and representation of written monuments implemented on the new digital platform BUDA (Buddhist Digital Archives), shows effectiveness of the underlying IIIF (International Image Interoperability Framework) and LOD (Linked Open Data) architectures. The efforts to assess artificial intelligence technologies prospects included a pilot study on the use of ‘deep learning’ neural network methods to create an experimental model for optical recognition of Tibetan characters which yielded a result of 94 % of recognized characters. This lays a foundation for flow-line decoding of Tibetan-language scans and creating a comprehensive corpus of Buddhist writings in a machine-readable format, which offers the challenge of developing new efficient digital textual tools. Conclusions. The integration of existing and promising approaches allows for a digital transformation of Buddhist written traditions, the latter to open new functioning forms and development opportunities in the contemporary world backed with a possibility to reveal the cultural and intellectual potential of Buddhist civilization for modern society to the full.

Introduction. The article provides a source analysis of the Law of 16 March 1892. Despite there are works dealing with the reform initiated by the act, there is no analysis of the document as a historical source. Goals. So, the paper attempts such a comprehensive insight into the Law. Materials and methods. The key method employed is that of source studies with due involvement of analysis and synthesis tools. The document is also examined with the use of techniques and approaches inherent to investigations of normative legal acts. Results. It is proper enough to identify the examined source as a law with legal force. Its adoption was determined by a number of socioeconomic and political prerequisites and reasons. The draft law was developed by committees and councils specially established within the Ministry of State Property. The preparatory process lasted for three decades to be attended by officials of most various levels. Furthermore, the nature and essentials of the Law were influenced by the events of 1881. The Law of 16 March 1892 was being implemented for almost three years but consequences of the reform to have intensified socioeconomic and sociopolitical processes in the region had far more significant and lasting effects. Historiography of the reform attests to that there still is an interest in the Law arising from its significance. Conclusions. The source analysis shows the Law of 16 March 1892 be classified as a public legislative act. Its development and adoption are integral to the reform process witnessed by Russia in the 1860s–1870s. The Law contributed to modernization of Kalmyk society and opened a new phase in Kalmyk history, changed lives of thousands of Kalmyk commoners granting them rights of free rural inhabitants. Undoubtedly, its significance as a historical source deserves particular attention and recognition.

Introduction. The article focuses on Manchu-Mongolian society as a historical and cultural community of East Asia which has had significant impacts on destinies and paths of many Eurasian peoples. Having been dramatically influenced by both objective and subjective factors in the early-to-mid 20th century, one part actually lost its identity while the other one preserved and even strengthened it. These and many other aspects have been actively explored by Russian (Soviet) and foreign scientific communities but works authored by our compatriots to have lived and worked in the to be examined region have been largely overlooked. Goals. The study attempts a source analysis of publications that somehow cast light on Manchu-Mongolian society and that were published in scientific centers of the Far East in the early-to-mid 20th century. Materials and methods. The work examines articles and notes from journals once published by the Society of Russian Orientalists, Society for the Study of Manchuria, Russian Law Faculty of Harbin, and non-periodical editions. The research methodology was determined by an interdisciplinary approach with the prevalence of historical tools. The work comprises data collection, thematic monitoring of publications, discourse analysis, a narrative approach, external and internal criticism of sources and their textual analysis, systemic historical and retrospective methods. The conducted research identifies key early 20th-century trends of Mongolian and Manchu studies, delineates the place of Manchu-Mongolian peoples in the population structure of the Qing Empire / Republic of China assigned to the former in those publications, characterizes the degree of awareness about legal traditions and law practices of the region. Conclusions. The publications under study and their authors contributed a lot to the understanding of the mentioned region of East Asia and its native peoples. The paper states that Orientalists at large — and particularly those engaged in historical and political studies — are obliged to revive names of those researchers, travelers, translators and other participants to have joined that grandiose process of exploring the Manchu-Mongolian region in the early-to-mid 20th century, and made (and still do) our stay in this part of Eurasia peaceful, with most complete knowledge about the latter.

Introduction. The article analyzes the Buddhist protective ritual against slander popular among Kalmyk Buddhists in the form of the rite of cutting off the ‘black tongue’. Despite studies prove a direct connection between the rite and pre-Buddhist beliefs, its practice by clerics who actively promote the Buddhist ideas of compassion and non-violence seems extremely controversial. Goals. The study aims to discover ethical foundations of the rite of cutting off the ‘black tongue’ within the system of Buddhist protective rituals and its potential for personal spiritual  development. Materials and methods. The work employs a complex methodology that includes anthropological and interdisciplinary approaches, ethical analysis, hermeneutic method. An important addition is the systematic approach of cultural anthropology according to which the theoretical and methodological significance of Buddhist scholars’ developments should be duly recognized. The study focuses on the Oirat text titled ‘Xara kelen’ and its Russian translations, a Tibetan text of The Noble Mahayana Sutra Entitled ‘Pacification of Black Disputes’. Results. The rite of cutting off the ‘black tongue’ serves to protect from existential problems (disease, failures in study and work, problems in personal relationships, loss of property, etc.) verbally provoked by ill-wishers. The paper clarifies that in the system of Buddhist protective rituals, the rite of cutting off the ‘black tongue’ acquires features of a spiritual practice performed to acquire Buddhist wisdom and develop altruistic intention rather than a religious action as such. If a believer does not understand the essence of the rite, he/she resorts to it in order to eliminate real obstacles allegedly provoked by others — and only in this case the practice of this rite acquires visible contradictions with Buddhist ethics. Conclusions. If one adopts the Buddhist approach to semantic interpretations of protective rituals, the consistency of the rite of cutting off the ‘black tongue’ to Buddhist ethics becomes obvious. With such interpretations and a corresponding practical application, the protective rite can serve a path for personal development of believers.

Goals. The study attempts a historical and anthropological reconstruction of how cryogenic resources — material objects and forces of nature arising from the realm of cold (ambient temperature below 0 degrees Celsius) — were used in economies and everyday life of rural Yakutia’s communities in the 1920s–1980s. Materials and methods. The work analyzes archival materials, scientific literature and author’s field observations made in settlements of Khangalassky, Megino-Kangalassky, Amginsky, Olyokminsky, Srednekolymsky Districts, and the urban locality of Zhatay (Yakutia, Russia) between 2017 and 2022. The most important elements of the methodological toolkit are basic principles of cryosophy implying analyses of phenomena inherent to the ‘cold world’ from perspectives of their resource potentials. Results. The most important outcome of Soviet modernization — along with collectivization and construction of settlements — proved the emergence of a new force in the process of human interaction with a complex of cryogenic factors — state. While before the 1920s rural dwellers were actually left to themselves, the Soviet era witnessed an extensive involvement of the government in the former’s relationship with cold. This resulted in the parallel existence of two oppositely directed trends. On the one hand, a number of once popular cryogenic practices either faded away or experienced a minimized demand. On the other hand, significance of others not only persisted but increased dramatically. Furthermore, some of the latter evolved to better meet actual needs of Yakutia’s rural communities, new techniques were created and developed to gain preferences from natural and geographic properties of the region. Unification and standardization are important characteristics of the then changes too. During that period, economic practices widespread in central regions of the country were actively introduced and, thus, diminished the diversity of ethnic ‘man-cold’ interaction practices. Supply improvement programs for large settlements led to decreased dependence of life sustenance systems on local resources and accordingly increased roles of communication routes, including winter roads and ice crossings. The emergence of large collective farms in Yakutia — as well as their extensive activities — gave rise to accelerated scales of icehouse construction. The extended areas of the former demanded farmland irrigation systems be as broadened, including with th use of cryogenic resources. Conclusions. Despite all the changes experienced by rural life patterns during the Soviet period of Yakutia’s history, cryogenic resources retained their significance both in the regional economy and everyday life.

Introduction. The article describes two equestrian expeditions undertaken in May and July 2022 to celebrate the 80th anniversary of earliest battles for the Don attended by the 100th Kalmyk Cavalry Division. The expeditions are viewed as commemorative practices to have facilitated further memorialization of the ethnic military unit’s heroic deeds. Materials and methods. The study employs a variety of general scientific and special research techniques, including the genetic method in history, participant observations, and interviews. The work analyzes monographs and articles dealing with the 110th Cavalry Division, interviews with expedition attendees, and published media materials. Results. The paper begins with a historical review of the 110th Kalmyk Cavalry Division and describes the struggle for its historical memory. This is followed by insights into the two equestrian expeditions to have commemorated the 80th anniversary of the unit’s earliest hostilities attended. The first expedition was held on Malye Derbety – Elista route (over 200 km long), lasted for seven days, and was culminated by a ceremonial march along Elista streets on 9 May. This involved a total of approximately thirty individuals, including one young woman and five children, and was largely a preparatory arrangement to identify and settle some potential logistic and technical problems. The second expedition was organized on route Malye Derbety – Razdorskaya (over 500 km long) in July 2022 and lasted for fourteen days. The group included seventeen male individuals dressed in 1942 uniforms of Red Army cavalrymen and equipped with blank WWII firearms. The expedition was to primarily pass through Rostov Oblast and ended in Razdorskaya on 23 July during an interregional Cossack song contest. Horse riders to have attended both the expeditions would participate in public meetings and concerts to narrate about heroic deeds performed by soldiers of the 110th Kalmyk Cavalry Division. So, the early 3rd millennium equestrian tours have proved an ingenious form of patriotic propaganda and shall be long remembered — like the delivered history of the ethnic military unit proper — by participants of corresponding events. Conclusions. The arranged equestrian expeditions have served an efficient tool to memorialize heroic past of the 110th Kalmyk Cavalry Division both across Kalmykia and Rostov Oblast.

Introduction. Comprehensive and efficient investigations of the earliest peopling of the Southern Urals became possible after the discovery of Mysovaya site in Abzelilovsky District of Bashkortostan (Russia). The Paleolithic materials from this site were considered mixed — Acheulean/Mousterian — or Mousterian proper. In recent years, the Lower and Middle Paleolithic site of Kusimovo-8 has been discovered nearby. This is a scattered workshop site on pebble flint outcrops within the terrace surface of the Bannoe-Sabakty paleolake. Goals. The study attempts an insight into the earliest peopling of the Southern Urals, describes and analyzes the Lower Paleolithic collection. Results. The finds were identified on the basis of technical and typological characteristics and preservation parameters. The collection comprises a total of 121 items, most of the objects made of flint pebbles and only two bifaces made of diabase. Nucleuses with patinated surfaces (19 items) are diverse enough: mainly flat cores of parallel and sub-parallel shearing are available to be quantitatively followed by radial, fan-shaped, and orthogonal cores. The tools are represented by oval and almond-shaped hand axes, cleavers, piked tools, a chopper, biface blanks, and various side-scrapers. The stratigraphy of test pits shows the presence of two cultural horizons: flint chips were found under the Middle Paleolithic cultural layer (grayish-brown loam with dolomite gravel) — 0.5 m lower in yellowish-brown loam. Paleoecological analyses of the pits attest to that yellowish-brown loam deposits can be dated to the Middle Pleistocene. Similar conditions were identified for Lower Paleolithic finds discovered at Mysovaya site. Similarity of both the sites makes it possible to conclude as to comparable ages of these collections and that they may cluster together within one Karyshkino-type industry which unites a majority of Lower Paleolithic sites across the Southern Transurals, all of them to form a specific variant of the Tayacian.

Introduction. The article examines Middle Bronze Age (Catacomb culture) skeletal remains of children and adolescents housed at the Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and attempts an evaluative insight into how informative those can be. Analyses of children and youngsters’ burials may deepen the understanding of ancient societies, actualize data on mortality and health conditions faced by non-adults. Goals. The osteological collection of Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) includes skeletal remains of over one and a half thousand individuals from burials dated to the Bronze Age throughout the Late Medieval Period. Nowadays the latter are being systemized, and a complete database is being compiled. The arrangements have revealed materials from children’s burials. Thematic reviews are aimed at identifying certain aspects of scholarly significance inherent to the skeletal remains repository created at Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and provide additional research insights into collected anthropological materials. Materials and methods. The review involves skeletal remains of children and adolescents numbering 129. In terms of cultural chronology, the bulk of the latter come from Catacomb burials, i.e. the Middle Bronze Age. So, the work scrutinizes the mentioned cluster of remains from 43 individuals. The compiled tables describe key characteristics. Peculiarities of the selected samples are also identified, and statistical analysis proves instrumental therein. The findings are compared to data on funeral practices provided by archaeologists for wider ranges of sites. Results. The study shows that conditions of bones are fine enough for both traditional anthropological evaluations and genetic, radiocarbon, isotopic ones. The analysis of funeral practices characterizing children’s Catacomb burials concludes the latter showed no essential differences from those of adults, i.e. virtually identical are proportions of main and inlet burials, structural patterns of burial graves, and characteristics of accompanying utensils excavated. 

Introduction. The article analyzes problem-solving mechanisms occurring in Buryat-Russian bilingual oral speech, the former being universal communicative strategies that enable bilinguals to construct and maintain Buryat language communication in the absence of some language resources and skills. Goals. The study attempts an analysis of extensive speech materials that include certain problem-solving mechanisms and aims at describing features of bilingual speech and essentials of social bilingualism from across the territories of ethnic Buryatia, as well as at showing analyses of such mechanisms be rewarding for explorations of Buryat-Russian bilingualism. Material and methods. The work examines recordings (speech narratives) of Tükherig TV Quiz Show (2019–2020) to have been attended by 285 bilinguals from different areas of ethnic Buryatia and with differing Buryat language proficiency levels. Speech portraits of the bilinguals contain details of their speech behavior individually indicating a certain problem faced and a mechanism employed to solve the latter. Reference editions prove instrumental in assessing efficiency of each specific mechanism activated and calculating correlations between age characteristics of the informants and task fulfillment rates, including actual communication language choices. Results. The paper reveals quite a number of various problem-solving mechanisms, identifies their activation reasons and logic. The narratives — though specific enough — make it possible to delineate features of social bilingualism in the region. Conclusions. The observations vividly confirm and illustrate findings of other researchers as to that the region’s communication paradigm is distinctly two-coded, with large layers of Buryat vocabulary remaining passive for Buryat-Russian bilinguals. This results in that though actively used basic words enable bilinguals to generate utterances in Buryat, the latter largely prove inaccurate and demonstrate no semantic diversity.

Introduction. Despite quite a number of Jangar-related issues have been duly studied, questions pertaining to existence, continuity (transmission) and preservation of the Xinjiang Oirat epic tradition, biographies of jangarchis and their repertoires remain somewhat insufficiently answered by Russia-based folklorists and, thus, seem as relevant enough. Goals. The article attempts an academic insight into the storytelling tradition of Xinjiang Oirat jangarchis, considers geographical borders of the epic, determines the role of a storyteller as bearer, keeper and performer of the epic heritage inherent to China’s Oirats. Materials and methods. The descriptive and comparative methods prove most instrumental in exploring the storytelling tradition of Xinjiang Oirats. The narratives examined are related editions in Oirat (Clear Script), Mongolian, and Kalmyk. Conclusions. Analysis of the Xinjiang Oirat storytelling tradition shows that the Jangar Epic was widely present in all ethnic groups of Xinjiang Oirats — the Torghut, Olet, Tsakhar, Khoshut, Zakhchins, and Uryankhai — throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, each population to have had renown jangarchis of their own with extensive repertoires numbering at least ten (and more) Jangar epic songs. The identified lines and patterns of transmission were clan-oriented. So, many jangarchis learnt epic narratives from storytellers of their clan — fathers, grandfathers, uncles, and brothers. The epic tradition was also contributed to by talented female storytellers who — having been unable to participate in meetings and contests since women were traditionally banned from epic storytelling — would recite texts in the family circle and teach storytelling to their children and grandchildren. In mid-to-late 20th century, the Xinjiang Oirat oral epic tradition started being paralleled by a written one.