Goals. The work aims at analysis of the views of the 13th Dalai Lama on the status of Tibet. Russian archival diplomatic and intelligence documents, as well as earlier published data from archives and memoirs of eyewitnesses, were used as materials. Received results reveal that the 13th Dalai Lama had shown that connections between the Dalai Lamas and the Qing emperors were limited only by the fact that the former were ‘spiritual masters’ of the latter, while the 5th Dalai Lama received secular power over Tibet from the Mongol Gushri Khan. Over time, the Qing power in Tibet was strengthened, and the Chinese began to consider Tibet a semi-dependent state. However, there were neither military conquest, nor any state act confirming such dependence, except for unilateral administrative orders from Chinese officials. Tibet was never under the rule of China, only later their relations began to transform into the vassal dependence of Tibet. With the abdication of the Manchu Dynasty, Tibet should become independent as before. These statements of the 13th Dalai Lama correspond to historical facts. Connections between the Dalai Lamas and the Qing emperors may be sufficiently described by the ‘priest–patron’ principle. Documents reveal that the Tibetan–Qing relations were treated in many aspects differently by both sides. Until the end of the Manchu Dynasty, the Dalai Lama never became a vassal to the Emperor, and Tibet was not a part of the Qing Empire. The collapse of this empire and the abdication of this dynasty gave the Dalai Lama new reason to declare final termination of the former connections between Tibet and China. The article quotes the Dalai Lama’s talks with Russian officials. Elaboration of ceremony of his reception by the Dowager Empress Cixi and Guangxu Emperor in Beijing is discussed.

Introduction. The article deals with an understudied episode in the history of the Kalmyk Khanate — 1724 ceremony of proclaiming Tseren-Donduk as Viceroy. Goals. The paper seeks to introduce a number of archival materials covering the period of Tseren-Donduk’s ruling years (1724–1735). Materials. The analyzed documents include ones housed by the National Archive of Kalmykia (Collection И-36). The Register of Kalmyk Affairs contains reports and accounts by Astrakhan Governor A. Volynsky collectively titled ‘About Controversies and Feuds between Kalmyk Landlords’. Results. Khan Ayuka’s death in 1724 gave rise to intense internal feuds among young heirs, and Russian authorities chose to introduce a new form of government in the Kalmyk Khanate — viceroyalty. Astrakhan Governor A. Volynsky believed his choice of Tseren-Donduk – a son of the late Khan – for the position of Viceroy would consolidate the Kalmyk community, and help get over the political crisis that had been lingering since 1723. And the decision did prove positive both to the Khanate and people. Recovery of the political system and consolidation of hereditary territories/populations (Kalm. ulus) were welcomed by the Government, despite the latter had initially tended to support Prince Dordzhi Nazarov in the position. Still, the appointment provoked somewhat hidden resistance of certain Kalmyk noblemen. In the meantime, Tseren-Donduk was viewed as a compromise candidate and accepted by most Kalmyk landlords. Conclusions. The Russian Government was seeking to consolidate political power among the Kalmyks – even in the hands of a temporary Viceroy appointee. The interaction between the parties during the editing of the Viceroy’s Oath of Allegiance uncovered two most essential problems in Russian-Kalmyk relations, namely: restrictions on external political contacts of Kalmyks, and the Nogai question.

Introduction. In the 17th century, the Kremlin Armoury (Moscow) stored the biggest collection of Central Asian helmets (‘Kalmyk caps’, Rus. shapka) in Europe. Introduction of the materials into scientific discourse remains a priority task. Goals. The paper seeks to identify stages in the formation of the ‘Kalmyk Caps’ Collection, describe the items in detail, and specify the actual conditions of their storage and maintenance in the museum. Results. The first richly decorated Central Asian helmets are reported to have arrived in the Kremlin Armoury since the early 17th century as diplomatic gifts from Mongol and Oirat rulers. In the mid-17th century, the collection grew through acquisitions of helmets made in Sothern Siberia and received by Russian authorities from Kuznetsk Tatars (historical ancestors of the Shors). The latter headgears were simpler and seem to resemble those delivered by Kuznetsk Tatars to Oirat warriors as alman (tribute) and in exchange for cattle. Arsenals of the Russian nobility proved the third and final source of the collection. As a result, in the late 17th century the Kremlin Armoury contained about 100 ‘Kalmyk shapkas’. The study shows the common opinion characterizing ‘Kalmyk caps’ as identical to ‘shapka bumazhnaya’ (cotton-wool helmets) is actually wrong. All the headgears constituting the collection are riveted iron helmets of different types. Moscow masters would modify ‘Kalmyk shapkas’ in the 1660-1670s through attaching plated aventails, arming caps, chinstraps, and plumes. At the same time, the Kremlin Armoury started producing plated kuyaks (body armors) that supposedly imitated Central Asian samples. From 1664 onwards, the Russian noblemen actively participated in military parades and diplomatic meetings wearing kuyaks and Kalmyk shapkas, vambraces and Kalmyk-style zarukavie (hand and arm protective gears). Conclusions. Particular attention to this type of Oirat armor in the late 1650-70s seems to have arisen not only from vivid interest of the Moscow nobility towards exotic Asian armory but rather due to active participation of the Kalmyks in Russian military campaigns. So, the fact the Russian nobility tended to wear Kalmyk shapkas and kuyaks during ceremonies or special events meant not only their desire to impress other attendees but was also to deliver the message — militant and victorious Kalmyks are now in the political orbit of the Tsardom of Muscovy.

Introduction. The Mongolian Revolution of 1921 was the result of active bilateral interaction between Mongolian and Soviet revolutionaries. It was the authorized representative of the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR to Mongolia O. I. Makstenek who contributed a lot to the preparation of the Mongolian Revolution of 1921: he participated in the Soviet-Mongolian negotiations of 1920-1921, and met Mongolian delegates who arrived at the border point of Troitskosavsk from Outer Mongolia. Goals and Objectives. The article studies O. I. Makstenek’s activities when a Soviet Russia’s plenipotentiary representative to Mongolia from June 1920 to March 1921. To facilitate this, the work 1) examines the then political situation in Mongolia and adjacent territories – the Russian Far East and Baikalia (as reported by O. I. Makstenek), 2) introduces into scientific discourse some archival materials dealing with his informational, organizational, diplomatic, political, and economic efforts. Materials. The study investigates documents stored by the Archives of Mongolia’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs titled ‘O. I. Makstenek, Authorized Officer of the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs in Mongolia, and Results of His Work: 1 June 1920 to March 1921’. Results. The study reveals previously unknown and valuable facts about diverse and productive activities of O. I. Makstenek. It casts light on details and peculiarities of his 1920 Troitskosavsk-based meetings with MPRP (Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party) members, February 1921 debates on the occupation of Maimaicheng; identifies names of involved Soviet, Mongolian and Chinese leaders, White Guard commanders. Conclusions. The authorized representative of the People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR to Mongolia O. I. Makstenek could not leave for Urga staying in Troitskosavsk between June 1920 and March 1921 but did a great job in preparing the Mongolian revolution of 1921. It was through his efforts that the Mongolian delegates without any restrictions were travelling via Troitskosavsk to other cities of the Far Eastern Republic and Soviet Russia, and would organize meetings of the MPRP in Troitskosavsk.

Introduction. Ethnic deportations in the USSR led to the elimination of a number of national autonomies and annexation of their territories to other regions. After the abolishment the Kalmyk ASSR, its lands were divided between Astrakhan, Stalingrad, Rostov Oblasts and Stavropol Krai. The history of these territories during the Kalmyk deportation remains essentially understudied. One such unexplored issue is the 1954 territorial dispute over Sarpinsky and Stepnoy Districts between Astrakhan Oblast, Stavropol Krai and Stalingrad Oblast. Materials and Methods. The article introduces and analyzes documents contained in the Collection of the CSPU Central Committee (RSFSR), Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History. The study also involves other historical and historiographic sources discovered by the author, employing the comparative-historical, problem-chronological methods, and that of source criticism. Results. The disagreements over Sarpinsky and Stepnoy Districts are an example of territorial disputes between different national-state and administrative-territorial entities in the USSR. Common causes of the conflicts were Soviet administrative and territorial transformations. At the same time, actual specific reasons for individual territorial disputes do differ. Territorial claims between southern regions escalated after J. Stalin’s death and subsequent change in the country’s political leadership. Astrakhan executives were dissatisfied with the 1952 transfer of Stepnovsky District to Stavropol Krai. They appealed to the party establishment and Soviet leaders proper reclaiming territories of Stepnoy (Stepnovsky) District (Stavropol Krai) and Sarpinsky District (Stalingrad Oblast). But in 1953 to 1955, the Soviet leadership was hesitant enough to alter any administrative boundaries. Moreover, positions of Stavropol and Stalingrad executives in this dispute proved well-justified. So, the dispute lead to nothing, and after the return of Kalmyks in 1957 Sarpinsky and Stepnoy Districts became parts of the Kalmyk national autonomy.

Introduction. The article deals with Kalmyk soldiers and non-commissioned officers deported to Shirokovsky Forced Labor Camp (Shiroklag) of the Soviet NKVD in 1944–1945. In the aftermath of the unjust abolition of the Kalmyk ASSR and Siberian deportation of its titular ethnos, over two-thirds of surviving Red Army soldiers and sergeants of Kalmyk descent were sent to Shiroklag where they formed two non-Russian construction battalions henceforth referred to as ‘labor army men’. Hard work without any essential mechanic means or labor saving devices, harsh climate, backbreaking output norms, and meagre meals resulted in mass exhaustion of Kalmyk soldiers, high disease and death rates. Goals. The paper presents a statistical analysis on Kalmyk inmates of Shiroklag. Materials. The compiled database utilizes the annotated list of Shiroklag prisoners published under the title ‘Shiroklag. Shirokstroy’ in 2000. The data are analyzed by categories, such as nationality, place (district) of birth, place of conscription (draft board), year of birth, educational level, party membership, diseases that caused death or disability, battle honors, time of arrival in Shiroklag, time and areas of decommissioning (for survivors). Results. The analysis reveals the reference book mentions representatives of other nationalities and contains some mistakes, leaving aside names of some Shiroklag ex-prisoners. However, the annotated list is a bulk of statistical data on the mentioned categories that makes whatsoever analysis possible and helps compile a collective portrait of Shiroklag-based Kalmyks which — being essentially extensive — may be actually instrumental in outlining features of Kalmyk combat veterans during the third stage of the Great Patriotic War.

Goals. The article discusses the place and role of Buddhism in current sociopolitical strategies of China’s Communist Party. Results. The study shows that the CPC’s sociopolitical strategy is aimed at realizing the ‘Chinese Dream’ which implies scenarios as follows: building of ‘Socialism with Chinese characteristics under the new conditions’; ‘complete construction of a moderately prosperous society’; implementation of the ‘One Belt ― One Way’ project; establishment of ‘a community of shared future for mankind’ with other countries; creation of ‘a multipolar world’. The official ideology underlying the party’s strategy is Marxist philosophy. So, the paper reveals key stages in the development of Marxist philosophy in the context of China’s social and political landmarks. At the same time, significant attention is paid to traditional culture. Conclusions. The article concludes special importance in realizing the ‘Chinese Dream’ is given to the revival of cultural heritage essentially based on the ‘Three Teachings’ – Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Buddhism is reported to still be of great importance in this heritage. The work gives insight into the modernization of Buddhist philosophical and soteriological principles that emerged in line with China’s new sociopolitical trends, and reveals the concept of ‘humanistic Buddhism’ put forward by Tai Xu, a leader of Renovated Buddhism, proves important enough to this modernization. Thus, the relationship between modernized Buddhism and the Communist Party rest on somewhat mutually beneficial basis: philosophical and worldview principles of Buddhism, its tolerance, and peaceful nature constitute a huge potential for its use in sociopolitical strategies of China’s Communist Party. The paper also emphasizes the role of Buddhism in foreign policies as a diplomatic factor of the Chinese government.

Introduction. Ursa Major is the constellation most venerated by Mongolic peoples. Goals. The article seeks to analyze related beliefs traced in folklore and collected field data, reveal key mythological characteristics, and cast light upon diachronous layers in the beliefs of Kalmyks and Oirats (Western Mongols). So, the work aims at analyzing basic Kalmyk and Oirat folklore plots dealing with origins of the Great Bear in comparison to those of other Mongolic cultures; and at examining the concept of Ursa Major against the background of some calendar rites and revered mythological images with due regard of contemporary ceremonies addressed to the constellation. Materials. Part One investigates folklore, ethnographic, and linguistic sources involved, thus focusing on the first objective declared. Part Two to be published in the next issue of the journal shall deal with the remaining tasks. Results. The paper identifies main variants of mythological texts about Ursa Major (Mong. Долоон бурхан, Долоон өвгөн, Kalm. Долан бурхн, Долан одн) existing in Kalmyk and Oirat discourses, comparing the latter to myths of other Mongolic populations. Basically, the myths narrate about seven male characters (siblings, sworn brothers, or thieves) or an ox-man. The Kalmyk plot of thieves is somewhat unique in Mongolic traditions, being rather typical for Turkic ones. The plot of ox-man Masn Mirü (or Massang) was borrowed from Tibet, though etymology of terms may tie the constellation (its emergence) to the archaic plot of day and night alternation as a chase of she-deer, and the solar theme at large.

Introduction. In Buddhist religious practice, Wutaishan as a symbol of the five sacred mountains of China has long enjoyed fame among pilgrims as a holiest place in East and Central Asia subsequent to Lhasa (Tibet). The article considers the sacred objects of Wutaishan and features of veneration of Buddhist objects by pilgrims (including representatives of Mongolic peoples). Goals. The work focuses on contemporary local forms of Buddhist worship observed during visits to religious sites of Wutaishan, and identifies the general and specific features of such practices. Materials and Methods. The paper primarily analyzes the author’s field materials collected in the course of his 2019 journey to the Wutaishan Buddhist religious and pilgrimage center (Shanxi Province, People’s Republic of China). The comparative analysis conducted involves traditional religious ideas of Mongolic peoples and the Buryats proper. The work employs the descriptive method, historical-comparative analysis, and the method of participant observation. Results. Nowadays, the opening of borders has resulted in that various objects — including religious ones, and particularly special places of worship — have become available for visits and inspections by representatives of traditional religious practices. According to the Buryat cultural and historical traditions, such places include sacred objects both in the territory of ethnic Buryatia (e.g., Olkhon Island and Mount Alkhanay), and in neighboring states (Gandantegchinlen Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Lhasa and Wutaishan in China, etc.). The primary study reveals certain historical ties between the sacred mountains of Wutaishan and other sacred sites in East and North Asia, and their religious-mythological parallels. The religious tradition says these objects (especially from the Yuan era onwards) have had great impacts on the development of Buddhism in the context of Mongolic ethnocultural traditions.

Introduction. Scholarly studies of Tuvan wedding rites date back to the late 19th century, and include quite a number of works by ethnographers, sociologists, and cultural scientists that tended to focused on topics inherent to general stages of Tuvan studies throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. The most significant achievement of the latter is detailed descriptions of rites and identification of their place in traditional culture. Goals. The article presents a sociocultural analysis of Tuvan wedding rites, and their past — and present — functions in the social life of the ethnic community. Moreover, such functions of rites have been considered only sporadically. Materials. The study investigates published data and conclusions on wedding rites of past periods, as well as authors’ field materials and observations of Tuvan weddings in the 2000s. The paper also scrupulously describes a full cycle of modern Tuvan wedding rites, and one wedding ceremony held in 2019 in Kyzyl. Results. The article combines available conclusions of researchers for the first time, and presents the general evolution of changes in sociocultural functions. In different periods — from the late 19th century to the present days — Tuvan wedding rites are considered as 1) traditional elements supposed to strengthen family ties between different tribes and help solve some economic issues, 2) means of social legitimization according to Soviet policies of equal rights for men and women, under ‘neolocality’ conditions, 3) modern rites for social presentation which is a combination of various traditions, innovations and borrowings. Conclusions. The current situation is characterized by a number of problems such as excessive theatricalization, significant expenses, specific competition between parties of relatives, waste of gifts, etc.

Introduction. The issue of preserving Russia’s national languages — including Buryat — is urgent enough, and personal name proves an important part of language and culture. Despite the undertaken measures, surveys reveal a decline in the use of the Buryat language. However, the increasing prevalence of ethnic anthroponyms causes no concern. Goals. The paper studies the historical dynamics of Buryat anthroponyms to identify specific features of ethnic processes in the contexts of modernization and globalization. Materials. The article deals with archival, field, manuscript, and literary sources. The anthroponyms analyzed comprise diachronous layers characterizing the specific dynamics of ethnohistorical processes, and are examined in diachronic (19th – 21st centuries) and synchronic (Cisbaikalia and Transbaikalia) perspectives. Results. Linguistic aspects of Buryat anthroponymy have been studied since the 1970s, and two articles have been published by ethnographers. Our analysis shows that due to constant transformation and modernization of the community anthroponyms of the Buryats are essentially historical, with a persistent layer of original Buryat names. Names of 19th-century Cisbaikalia-based Buryats are vividly ethnic which is evident from present-day family names of descendants. Russian names used to be rare enough, and even the few ones were significantly modified to Buryat spelling norms. Names of Transbaikalia-based Buryats experienced a dramatic inflow of Tibetan Buddhist anthroponyms soon recognized as Buryat Buddhist ones. The tradition to take surnames by personal names of fathers resulted in that Buddhist-stemmed family names have become common in the area in the 20th – 21st centuries. These processes have led to that personal name and surname acquire an ethno-discriminating function among the people. The mid-20th century (Soviet era) onwards witnessed a spread of Russian names, and the latter still constitute quite a share in the late 20th – early 21st centuries but prestige of Buryat names does increase, the list being replenished with modern sonorous anthroponyms. The cross-border location of Buryats determines certain specific features in the shaping of anthroponymic clusters: those comprise elements of Mongolian (nomadic), Russian (Orthodox Christian), and Indo-Tibetan (Buddhist) cultures — with a sufficient central core of Buryat traditional (shamanistic) elements. The paper reveals the historical dynamics describing the Buryats both as part of the universal Mongolic world, and — in social developmental perspectives — as part of Russian and Soviet structures (Russian Empire, USSR, and Russian Federation). Conclusions. The study of Buryat name-giving trends shows (chronologically and territorially) anthroponyms mirror key global and local facts of ethnic history, transformed value paradigms. The Buryats retain a layer of original ancient Buryat names, the rest (Russian, Buryat Buddhist, modern Buryat, revived archaic Buryat ones) having been formed as results of the dynamic historical process.

Introduction. The article studies the contemporary ethno-confessional landscape of the Altai Republic as part of historical/cultural heritage, and as a factor influencing certain present-day sociocultural processes. Goals. The work seeks to identify constants and development trends in ethno-confessional relations in the region. Methods. M. Weber’s theory of social action and several sociophilosophical concepts, including those of sociocultural neotraditionalism, collective memory and collective trauma, constitute the theoretical framework of the study. The latter summarizes results of 2003-2018 sociological surveys that revealed most significant — for the collective memory of the Altai peoples – historical events to have posed global challenges in modern and contemporary history, namely: disintegration of nomadic power structures and inclusion in the orbit of an essentially differing civilization, transition to modernization, and pressure of world religions. Results. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of trends have emerged that can be qualified as collective responses to such global challenges: revival of family and clan self-organization forms, preservation of traditional economic paradigms, rejection of technocratic attributes of modernization, development of neo-traditional syncretic religious forms. Conclusions. The analysis of statistical data, materials of regional media and social networks, included observations make it possible to distinguish some actual development trends in ethno-confessional relations in the region: conservation (despite the crisis) of local human potential characterized by that quite a number of individuals tackle ethnocultural, religious/mystical, and mythopoetic creativity jobs which, thus, transform the sphere of the sacred into a space for political, civil, and generational discourse. Public consciousness of natives is also marked by dualism of secular and religious aspects, while sacralization of memory might be a means to use cultural heritage in overcoming the collective trauma caused by modernization.

Introduction. The article considers the Bashkir folk ethnogenetic legend of Aina and Gaina supposed to contain ancient mythological views of the ethnos, beliefs and traditions characteristic of archaic epic folklore. Goals. The work seeks to identify the Gaina Bashkirs’ ancient perceptions of the world and nature, their aesthetic traditions and customs traced in surviving variants of the ethnogenetic legend. Materials and Methods. It is known that epics take shape over centuries, passing from generation to generation, improved and polished. But at certain points, some of such epic narratives literally cease to exist as ones. This may be caused by that holistic elements of a once ancient epic simply sink into oblivion. Similarly, the surviving fragment of the once famous epic about the female demiurge Ar ― a mythical foremother of the Bashkir clan Gaina ― and the two brothers Gain and Aina (who saved the Sun) takes the form of a mythological legend, and quite a share of taletellers’ knowledge vanishes, which leads to the destruction of the epic plot, desacralization of ancient beliefs and rituals. Results. The paper shows this may have resulted from that the northwestern Gaina Bashkirs had been isolated from their historical homelands in the Republic of Bashkortostan. Assimilation, introduction of a different language and cultural elements led to the destruction of the archaic worldview and indigenous traditions: no long songs were sung, no epic recited. However, due to somewhat genetic memory of the Gaina people at least a fragment of the ancient epos has survived, even though in a different form. So, the core of the ethnogenetic legend of Aina and Gaina is the once widespread ancient mythological epic about the salvation of the Sun by brothers, their struggle against a mythical being, victory of good over evil, and the hero’s marriage to the mythical creature Аr, resulting in the emergence of the ancient Bashkir tribe.

Zhabaeva L. B. Book review: [Federal Security Service Archives: Mongolia Documented, 1922–1936]. Coll. materials. V. V. Naumkin, K. V. Orlova, V. V. Grayvoronsky (eds.). Institute of Oriental Studies of the RAS. Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS), 2019. 528 p. Oriental Studies. 2020; Vol. 13(2): 465–469 (In Russ.). DOI: 10.22162/2619-0990-2020-48-2-465-469