Goals. The article publishes and analyzes archaeological materials of the modern period found at Pervomaisky-1 site discovered in foothill-steppe areas of the Southern Trans-Urals (a high plateau 14 km west of the right bank of the Ural River, Abzelilovsky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia) in 2019. Materials. The collection includes three groups of pottery (coarse, gray-clay and red-clay), porcelain and earthenware dishes, various iron products (knives, harrow teeth, fragments of a cast-iron pot, horseshoes, etc., and no weapons traced), pieces of iron ore, animal bones, etc. Results. The source analysis of the finds and analogies from the rest of the Urals, Volga Region and Western Siberia made it possible to date the site to the mid — late 19th century and typologically classify it a short-term sedentary agricultural settlement. The paper establishes a relative synchronicity of all types of pottery (including impurities to clay dough), porcelain and earthenware, showing a high proportion of tableware and ‘tea’ utensils, which may be associated with the type of the site. The absence of large cast-iron cauldrons is defined as a marker of some agricultural (not nomadic) population. The involvement of historical data and cartographic materials deepened the analysis and made it possible to determine the site is a field camp of Cossacks from Magnitnaya stanitsa (Orenburg Cossack Host) that emerged after the establishment of Novolineiny District and the 200 km eastward transfer of Russia’s national frontier. This resulted in the territory turned into a deep rear area. So, the former fortress became a rich village where trade was developing and the population was rapidly increasing. Cartographic data show the object was located in the center of a narrow (5-6 km) arable land strip bounded by the main transport artery of the region — Orenburg Post Road — in the east, and by the border of Cossack and Bashkir lands in the west. The conducted comprehensive studies substantiate dating parameters of the archaeological complex which is of great importance for further development of modern history-related archeology in the entire Ural–West Siberian Region, and show the likely abundance of agricultural field camps across the territory that can be viewed as a separate type of archaeological objects.

Introduction. The Far Eastern Republic that emerged in the spring of 1920 suited all political players — Moscow, Tokyo, Washington, Irkutsk Political Center, and other peripheral political forces of the Far East. The ‘buffer’ state also played an important role in the transnational history of the Mongolian world. Mongolian revolutionaries stayed in the territory of the Far Eastern Republic in the summer and autumn of 1920. At that time, they were deeply imbued with the ideas of the Bolsheviks. Goals. The study seeks to examine the organizational role of the Far Eastern Republic as an outpost of the Mongolian Revolution of 1921. The objectives be tackled are as follows: investigation of the Russian-Mongolian revolutionary interaction in 1918-1920; analysis of activities of O. Maksteneck, an authorized representative of the RSFSR People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs to Mongolia; exploration of the route and work of three groups of Mongolian delegates in the territory of the Far Eastern Republic and Soviet Russia in 1920; insight into activities of the first congress of the Mongolian People’s Party in Troitskosavsk in March 1920. Materials. The paper analyzes archival documents dealing with the history of Russian-Mongolian military cooperation in the early-to-mid 20th century, considers works by domestic and Mongolian authors dedicated to the creation of the Far Eastern Republic and the Mongolian Revolution of 1921. Conclusions. The leadership of the Far Eastern Republic headed by B.  Shumyatsky and the authorized representative of the RSFSR People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs O. Maksteneck played a crucial role in organizing the activities of the Mongolian revolutionary delegates. They convinced the Mongolian revolutionaries of the need to rely on Soviet power and its armed forces in the struggle for Mongolian independence.

Introduction. Religious policies of the Russian Empire in early modern history is a topical issue of historiography. An important (though poorly researched) aspect of this question is the role of Kalmyk Christian elites. Being part of the diverse ethnoreligious cluster, the latter served as a conductor of Russia’s influence on subject nomadic communities (Oirats, Turkic tribes) during the period under consideration across southeastern steppe peripheries and adjacent territories. The Stavropol Kalmyk host established in 1737, quartered next to the fortress of Stavropol-on-Volga, and since 1745 referred to as Stavropol Corps of Kalmyk Christians was one of such groups.Goals.The study seeks to reconstruct the biography of Afanasy Shorin, an interpreter socially representing army elites. His life journey may be instrumental in tracing the shaping (and details) of communication patterns between Russian authorities and steppe leaders during the mentioned period. Materials and Methods. The study analyses rich source materials from Russia’s central and local institutions that reflect certain phases of Afanasy Shorin’s biography. The research tools include those of source criticism and archaeography which provided a systematic insight into the documents. Special attention is paid to the collected indirect testimonies that would clarify separate aspects of the person’s life. Results.The biography reconstructed from the documents contains a number of milestones, such as birthright privileges, military career prospects, escape attempts and refusal of active service, two discharges from any liability for the offences by the Russian authorities as a tribute to the social status and merits of ancestors, admission to the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, civil service in Stavropol-onVolga, and an important political mission in 1757–1758. The article identifies how and why the life trajectory unusual for a representative of such background and status — a school teacher, interpreter but not a military officer — reflected the processes of interaction between Russia proper and steppe nomads. It also underlines the importance of the Oirat factor for the state before and after the fall of Dzungaria. In the meantime, the text describes sentiments of the Stavropol host leadership and emphasizes the dissatisfaction with restrictions to have resulted from social class policies of Russian authorities by the late 1760s. The article contains the idea that it was the discontent with his position, which was fully characteristic of many including Afanasy Shorin, that pushed the highest authorities of the host to participate in the Yemelyan Pugachev’s Rebellion. As a possible prospect, the departure was suggested, by the example of the Kalmyks of Ubashi Khan, who departed to China in 1771. The article proves first to reveal the mechanism of how service conditions, kinship and confessional contacts influenced the inclusion of Kalmyk Christian elites into the border Russian military-andpolitical system. The text gives arguments that essentially contradict the trend (previously expressed in historiography) to consider the anti-serfdom protest as the only reason why Stavropol Kalmyks supported Pugachev’s Rebellion. Conclusions. The paper concludes the Kalmyk Christian nobility and related elites of the Kalmyk community played a significant role in foreign and religious policies under Elizaveta Petrovna and in the early years of Catherine the Great’s reign, which explains the increased attention of the government towards them. However, their relevance within the established border system and, consequently, their positions were largely exhausted in the 1770s. This was also facilitated by the decline in the importance of the Oirats, and the rise of the Turkic direction in Russia’s foreign policy in the south and southeast.

Introduction. The article reviews the history of the origin and development of meteorological observations in the East of Russia and some Eastern countries of Eurasia. Goals. The paper seeks not just to describe the sequence of events from the history of the development of meteorology as a science in the East, but rather to find patterns that lead to the chain of research on the nature of the region, identify the main stages or periods thereof, consider and clarify the development of meteorology in the East of Russia and Eastern Eurasia. Materials. The work employs a set of complementary research methods, such as theoretical analysis of geographical and historical literature on the problem under consideration; provides insights into archival materials and published sources; conducts comparative analysis of events from the history of the origin and development of meteorological science on the Eastern borders of our country. Conclusions. The study of archival materials and published sources made it possible to determine trends in the development of meteorological research in the region. The article primarily focuses on the influence of the Beijing Magnetic Meteorological and Main Physical Observatories on the emergence and development of the meteorological network of the East.

Introduction. The article analyzes the development of Kalmykia’s fishing industry between 1926 and 1932. Goals. The paper seeks to review the formation and development processes within the regional fishing industry during the NEP era, providing insight into local peculiarities thereof to be traced through documented collectivization and industrialization activities among seminomadic Kalmyks in the Lower Volga and Northern Caspian. Materials and Methods. The work employs a number of historical research methods, such as chronological and problem-chronological ones that made it possible to shed light on the topic mentioned above. The study involves quite diverse sources, namely: materials mentioning the development of fishing industry in the territory of Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast (including unrelated scholarly papers), administrative files and reports from different archives, field observations, etc. The main criteria the research rests on are accuracy and objectiveness. Results and Conclusions. The conducted analysis reveals certain practices and business models adopted during the shaping and infrastructure development of the autonomy, clarifies mechanisms and results of interaction between the central Government and regional authorities exercised throughout the process. The paper also illustrates all the stages passed and challenges faced by the newly reestablished ethnic region and its executives to create a sustainable fishing industry for further prosperity of the territory and its population.

Introduction. In the 1960s – mid-1980s, in the face of an increase in crime, the state transferred some law enforcement and domestic security functions to the public. Activities of public organizations — voluntary people’s guards (Russ. DND) — contributed to countering the growth of crime and delinquency in the country. Despite the availability of scientific papers dealing with activities of the DND in the indicated years nationwide, the regional aspect of the issue remains understudied. DNDs were further developed in the post-Soviet period, which confirms their efficiency and significance. Goals. The paper seeks to analyze activities of voluntary people’s guards in the 1960s – mid1980s. For this, a number of objectives be tackled, such as to consider the dynamics of their development, analyze forms of countering the growth of offenses in Bashkiria in the indicated years, state policy towards this public organization. Materials. The article primarily investigates materials and documents deposited in the National Archive of Bashkortostan which contains valuable information thereto, including about the system of measures aimed at combating the growth of offenses. Methods. The work employs the historical-genetic method which made it possible to examine the dynamics of development and structural changes in the DND. The analysis of archival documents and materials involves the principles of objectivity and historicism, and that of scientificity, which proves instrumental in exploring the topic in certain historical backgrounds. Results. The period under consideration witnessed the creation of a network of voluntary people’s guards as an auxiliary organization designed to combat the growth of crime and delinquency in Bashkiria. The squads were controlled by authorities and grew to become a powerful law enforcement institution. Moreover, those facilitated further legal education of Soviet citizens. DNDs and order control agencies did prove efficient in reducing the level of offenses. The paper concludes the involvement of ordinary citizens in law and order protection activities was determined by the then increasing criminalization of society and flaws in the order and safety system. Party and state bodies were thus forced to initiate and support the movement.

Introduction. The paper briefly reviews the current state and prospects of Mongolian studies at the Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS) that celebrated its 200th anniversary in 2018. The Institute maintains and strengthens its positions as a leading national and global research center for Oriental studies. Goals. The study attempts at summarizing the Institute’s 2010–2020 experiences in developing Mongolian studies as a traditional branch of Russia’s Oriental studies, characterizing the present state and development prospects with due regard of actual achievements, challenges, and problems. Materials and Methods. The work analyzes scholarly publications authored by associates of the Mongolian Studies Unit (Department of Korean and Mongolian Studies) and other departments of the Institute in 2010–2020, including operating archives ― through the use of historical, chronological, descriptive, analytical and other methods. Results. The study shows that despite a number of objective and subjective difficulties, associates of the Institute keep developing Mongolian studies exploring some topical and understudied issues of ancient, medieval, modern, and contemporary Mongolia; providing comprehensive insights into present-day political, socioeconomic, and cultural frameworks of Mongolia proper and Russia-Mongolia relations. Still, the Institute ― and specifically the Mongolian Studies Unit ― experiences a critical shortage of qualified young Mongolists, and if the problem remains unsolved respective research perspectives should encourage no optimism. The number of highly experienced Mongolists and Orientalists that conduct research activities on a range of Mongolia-related issues (history, historiography, source studies, discoveries and publications of new sources, written monuments and archives, philology, etc.) affiliated thereto is small enough. The former publish their scholarly works and actively cooperate with colleagues from similar scientific and educational organizations of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Irkutsk, Ulan-Ude, Elista, Kyzyl, Vladivostok and other Russian cities; establish relations with foreign humanities research centers of Mongolia, China, Japan, the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, etc. Chronologically, the review covers the period between 2010 and 2020, and characterizes key changes in staff composition; shows fundamental research trends; summarizes outcomes of scholarly, organizational and publishing activities; mentions main joint and individual monographs authored (published) by associates of the Department of Korean and Mongolian Studies in 2010–2020. The paper specifies basic development problems faced by Mongolian studies in the context of Oriental studies as such, provides conclusions and prognoses for further evolution of this research line at the Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS).

Introduction. The article examines the ethnonym of the largest Buryat tribe — Khori. The absence of universally accepted etymology thereof in Buryat ethnography significantly complicates ethnogenetic studies dealing with earliest ethnic history. Goals. The work seeks to reveal linguistic, historical, and cultural etymology-related properties of the term ‘Khori’ in Buryat ethnonymic discourse. Materials and Methods. The article analyzes texts of Khori Buryat shamanic invocations, data from Mongolian written sources, and petroglyphs from the northern shore of Lake Baikal. The materials have been studied using the methods of historical comparative, historical contrastivecomparative, cultural semantic and linguistic analyses, reference data being similar facts from cultures of Turko-Mongols inhabiting Central Asia and Southern Siberia. Results. The image of the Mother Deer described in shamanic texts of Khori clans settled in the mouth of the Selenga River can be traced to the Scytho-Siberian canonical tradition of depicting animals on stone slabs that accompany burial mounds containing Caucasoid remains in the mountainous regions of Western and Northwestern Mongolia, similar to Pazyryk mounds of the Altai and Uyuk mounds of Northern Tuva. Historical, cultural and linguistic ethnic indicators allow for the possibility the ethnonym ‘Khori’ may derive from the word ‘khor’ used to denote the Sun and its symbol — Deer — among the Bronze and Early Iron Age nomadic Iranian-speaking tribes of Central Asia and Southern Siberia. A comparative insight into common traditions of worshipping the Swan — maternal totem bird of the Khori Buryats, Western Mongols, and Teleuts — makes it possible to determine ethnic and cultural ties between ethnic ancestors of the Khori and Turkic tribes with the Swan cult through the ethnic union referred to as ‘Toumat’ and geographically connected with the Sayan-Altai. The research shows that the origins of the ethnonym ‘Khori’ is closely related to the history and culture of Central Asian nomads — representatives of the stone grave culture characterized by the solar cult and that of the Mother Deer.

Introduction. The article analyzes vestiges of the fox cult among Bashkirs. The animal used to be a most revered one in religious and mystical beliefs of the nation. Goals. The work seeks to study the fox cult in all its manifestations in everyday life and economic activities on the basis of folklore, ethnographic and other materials. The main sources involved are ethnographic, folklore, linguistic publications, as well as the author’s field data. Methods. The research rests on theoretical, retrospective and comparative historical analyses of the mentioned sources. Results. The study is first to analyze various data on the fox cult among Bashkirs, which makes it possible to reconstruct some aspects of Bashkir ethnic history and is also instrumental in identifying the historical and genetic roots of ethnic spiritual culture. The paper employs new folklore and ethnographic materials, and introduces them into scientific discourse. Conclusions. The traditional ethnic worldview contains the idea of kinship and identity between Bashkirs and the fox; the former proclaims a possibility of mutual reincarnation and somewhat absence of any fundamental difference between the latter ― all this to constitute the essence of the ancient man’s ideas about his place in the world. Folklore and rituals maintain vestiges of faith that individual clan groups are descended from the fox. When viewed as a totemic ancestor, the fox takes on the roles of a patroness, protector, adviser and helper of people that gives health, prosperity and family happiness. Bashkir oral literature contains materials that recognize the fox as a zoomorphic deity, the mistress of nature and personification of the sun. In everyday traditions and folk choreography, there are traces of a totemic ritual of honoring the fox as a totem and totemic ancestor. Being a sacred creature, the fox was a tabooed animal in customs and beliefs of the Bashkirs.

Introduction. The rules of road culture developed over centuries have always occupied an important place in the traditional worldview and everyday life of Bashkirs. The phenomenon of road culture and travel among Bashkirs has remained understudied, and this article serves to eliminate the existing gap to some extent and introduce new data into scientific discourse. Goals. The paper seeks to systematize materials dealing with the Bashkir traditional road culture and consider its functional / semiotic components believed instrumental in overcoming travel-related obstacles. Materials and Methods. The study focuses on reports and materials by participants of 18th-century academic expeditions (I. I. Lepekhin, P. S. Pallas, etc.), subsequent ethnographic works, Bashkir folklore narratives, and recent field materials collected in various regions of Bashkortostan. Chronologically, the study covers the period between the 18th and early 20th centuries. Results. The paper shows that movement through space — travel — among the Bashkirs had not only practical but also metaphysical properties, since the traveler is believed to be simultaneously advancing both across the real and the other worlds. So, security is suggested to depend on both physical and magical actions, as well as sympathies of spirits or ‘masters’ of various natural objects. The traditional Bashkir society has developed a specific road culture that aimed to resist, avert diverse threats. In olden days, travels were seen as a male domain (hunting, military service, fishing, study, trade trips, pilgrimages, etc.). The article discusses the traditional pre-travel and farewell practices, customs that were to be observed en route, rituals supposed to guarantee a traveler’s return, etc. Conclusions. The Bashkir road culture is a complex, open, and evolving system. ‘Path’ and ‘road’ in traditional representations of Bashkirs were essentially sacral symbols.

Introduction. The publication highlights a special period in the history of Kalmykia still insufficiently studied by anthropologists ― that of the Great Patriotic War and nation’s deportation to Siberia (1943–1956) ― introducing memories and narratives thereof. It consists of an introduction, two interviews, commentaries, and a bibliography. The presented narratives belong to individuals who had met the trials of deportation with different life experiences: front-line soldier, Lieutenant L. T. Dordzhiev ― and Elista schoolgirl, daughter of the front-line soldier E. S. Basanova. Goals. The paper seeks to identify and clarify the meanings of everyday practices, details of life that were vital for the generation of our fathers and mothers, so that they remain understandable to the generation of children and grandchildren. Another goal is to understand what construction patterns in deportation narratives can be traced, what images and plots are significant, what verbal formulas and stable expressions are used by storytellers in spontaneous narration, and what assessments of past events and what expressions they give. Materials and Methods. Both the interviews will be explored through narrative analysis. The materials are presented in the form of transcribed spontaneous interviews received by the author from L. Dordzhiev in 2005, and from E. Basanova in 2018. Textological analysis and the method of text deconstruction were employed. Results. The front-line experience of L. Dordzhiev is interesting enough not only for his individual but for his collectivist strategy too, as well as for his participation in Operation Lentil (Russ. Chechevitsa). Male strategies of resistance to a repressive regime show legal literacy and the ability to speak Bolshevik (S. Kotkin) as means of self-defense, as well as a willingness to defend their dignity physically. The woman’s interview shows how the generation of Kalmyk children indoctrinated by Soviet ideology had to live with the values of Soviet society and loyalty to Kalmyk identity. Both the interviews are concrete examples of private memories of the war and deportation years ― first-person memories. The interview texts will be of interest to all researchers of the Kalmyk Deportation and memory of this period. The discursive strategies of these two narratives speak of their positive nature (J. Alexander).

The study focuses on the informal resource trade between Mongolians living in the far eastern region of Mongolia on the border with China and Chinese citizens (Inner Mongolians and Han Chinese). The cross-border relations between these nations are understandably maintained because of the economic opportunities they provide to citizens on both sides of the border. The article is based on the results of fieldwork held in 2015–2017 in eastern Mongolia. Although all the Mongolians living on the border are involved in informal resource trade with Chinese citizens, they feel apprehension about the morality of these relationships. The moral evaluation and justification that the local Mongolians use to explain these economic interactions is built upon the important distinction between trade ‘for subsistence’ and trade ‘for profit’ where trade ‘for subsistence’ is considered largely moral, whereas trade ‘for profit’ is denigrated as ‘selfish’ behavior.

Introduction. Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar was Mongolia’s first ruler to hold both secular and spiritual power. In the late 17th century, the country witnessed dramatic internecine wars, and his overriding goal was to unify the nation and increase the educational level. Virtually all his self-portraits discovered depict Zanabazar as a real priest with iconographic markers of Buddha Vajrasattva. The selected Buddhist symbol is supposed to deliver a deepest nonverbal sermon and mysterious testament of the prominent Buddhist master. Goals. The paper seeks to further reveal, examine, and describe objects of artistic heritage authored by Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar and currently stored in state, public, administrative, and private collections of Mongolia and Russia. Results. The work is a first attempt to examine Zanabazar’s self-portraits — both sculptural and graphic ones (including tiny elements of different thangkas) — in their structural unity in the context of his meditative practices. The descriptions of the pictures compiled with due regard of Buddha Vajrasattva-related tantric texts and facts of Öndör Gegeen’s biography may be viewed as sources for historical and art studies in Vajrayana Buddhism. The analysis of textual and graphic materials attempts to interpret Zanabazar’s unique position as both a spiritual and Buddhist arts master.

Introduction. The article discusses the Oirat and Tibetan texts of Avalokiteshvara divination. Goals. The paper aims to introduce the Oirat fortune-telling text (which was in use in Western Mongolia) and its Tibetan version into scientific circulation. The divination is instrumental in studying religious practices and beliefs of the Oirats of Western Mongolia. Materials. Materials for the article were obtained from two sources. The Oirat text was borrowed from the collection titled The Light of Clear Script Texts (Mong. Tod Nomin Gerel) which is stored on the website of the Digital Library for International Research. The Tod Nomin Gerel Collection comprises digital copies of various Oirat-language texts written in ‘Clear Script’ and those of Tibetan-language ones. The Tibetan divination text was obtained by the author during language training in Ulaanbaatar in 2012-2013 from Amarbayasgalan Ulzibat, resident of Ulaanbaatar. Methods. The article employs the comparative method and that of contextual analysis. Results. A comparison of the Oirat and Tibetan texts makes it possible to assume that the Tibetan text is a translation from Mongolian/Oirat. This practice was inherent to Mongolian society. Thus, the study is of interest due to an opportunity to get comparative insights into fortune-telling traditions of Tibet and Mongolia, as well as the process of generating such texts and translation practices in traditional society.

Introduction. The manuscript of The Sutra of the White Old Man — call no. B 228(1) — in the collection of the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts (RAS) is written in the Oirat Clear Script. The manuscript was compiled during the period when the traditional rules of graphics and spelling were strongly influenced by the spoken language. Goals. The article aims at eliciting special features of the handwriting and spelling of this particular text of the Sutra. Results. If compared to the classical rules, the changes traced in the text affected both the graphics (letters and diacritic signs) and spelling of words. The spelling patterns in the manuscript reflect (although inconsistently and irregularly) some phonetic processes that took place in the spoken language, such as the development of diphthongs into long vowels, assimilation, insertion and reduction of vowels. The sign ‘udan’ denoting long vowels is used in the text only occasionally, and reduplication of labial vowels in the same function is only preserved in monosyllabic words and final syllables. The author speculates that the ‘udan’ sign could have lost its meaning to become a decorative element of the handwriting in certain positions. The paper transliterates the text and publishes a facsimile of the manuscript

Introduction. Being an important stratum of the vocabulary of any language that conveys ethnolinguistic specifics of texts, household vocabulary attracts attention of linguists. Khan Ayuka’s letters to Astrakhan Chief Commandant M. I. Chirikov are traditionally referred to as samples of the 18th-century Kalmyk official epistolary genre. The lexical composition of the examined texts is characterized by diversity since the latter contain essentially different types of vocabulary (military terms, titles, anthroponyms, toponyms, etc.). Goals. The article seeks to analyze the functioning of household vocabulary in Khan Ayuka’s letters in comparison to synchronic Russian translations. The 18th-century sources comprise historical/lexicological materials and provide an opportunity to clarify if there is a correspondence between the use of household vocabulary — and genre/stylistic and substantial features traced in source and translated texts. Methods and Materials. The paper investigates Khan Ayuka’s letters dated to 1714 and simultaneous Russian translations stored at the National Archive of Kalmykia. The research primarily employs contextual analysis and the descriptive, comparative methods. The involved texts were transliterated, adapted (from Old to Modern Kalmyk), and translated (literally) into Russian by D. B. Gedeeva. Results. The analysis reveals peculiarities that characterize a particular fragment within early 18th-century Kalmyk and Russian vocabularies. So, the source texts contain not only common Mongolic lexemes but also Russian loanwords. There is a correspondence between the use of household vocabulary and the implied intentions: household vocabulary is used to articulate the request / demand to deliver a certain part of the annual salary which was not limited to money. Thus, acting as enumerative elements, household vocabulary units emerge in a periphery of the vast sociopolitical lexicon. Unlike texts with imperative subgenres, informative letters confirming receipt of the submitted objects are more precise: such messages routinely use words that denote measures of weight or volume paired with cardinal numerals. Besides, there are examples confirming a dependence between a token used — and the described situation and essence of the request. Our comparison of household vocabulary units chosen by translators as equivalents explicitly delineates the ethnolinguistic specifics inherent to Kalmyk official letters and their synchronous Russian translations.

Introduction. In modern linguistics much attention is paid to the study of national/cultural features of functioning and semantics of emotive vocabulary. Still, Kalmyk emotive vocabulary has been no subject to any special research. Goals. The paper seeks to identify and classify lexicalsemantic groups of emotive verbs in texts of the Jangar epic, analyze functioning patterns of verbs denoting ‘basic’ emotions, namely: joy (Kalm. җирһх ‘be happy blissful’, байрлх ‘rejoice’), fear (әәх ‘be afraid, frightened, have a dread of, fear’, ичх ‘be ashamed, embarrassed’), and one verb of external (physical) manifestation of emotions (инәх ‘laugh’). Materials. The study analyzes emotive verbs traced in 28 Jangar texts recorded at different times (occasions) and either included in repertory cycles or once recited as separate songs. Results. The study reveals emotive verbs of the epic can be divided into six lexical and semantic groups. So, ‘verbs of negative emotional states’ are more frequently used than ‘verbs of positive emotional states’. The latter are represented by two verbs, the verb җирһх definitely dominates throughout narratives examined, reflecting the state of utmost happiness that consists in peace, tranquility and well-being of the blessed Bumba in general; the verb байрлх is used to denote the short-term emotional state of joy of a particular character. As for ‘verbs of negative emotional states’, the verb әәх prevails in frequency. And it is revealed that the emotion of fear may occur for a number of reasons as follows: fear of failure to execute an order of the Bogdo; fear of breaking an oath; fear of name shaming. The paper observes only scarce cases of the use of verbs naming emotions of sadness (энлх), embarrassment (эмәх), and vexation (һундх). The analyzed epic texts contain no emotive verbs that belong to semantic groups of fascination, love and hatred, worship or self-abasement.

Introduction. As recent research works show, scholars tend to disagree about the origin of the Kipchak plural form. K. M. Musaev hypothesizes that the Proto-Kipchak form of this affix was *-tar/*-ter whereas, according to O. A. Mudrak, the protolanguage form was *-lar/*-ler. Indeed, it seems impossible to reconstruct the form of the plural affix for the *-n, *-ŋ, *-m, *-C-stem words based on the modern data for the Kipchak languages. Furthermore, the Proto-Turkic reconstruction of the plural affix for these stems is also unclear. Purpose of research: It follows that a systematic analysis of the forms of the plural affix with different stems in the first books in the Kipchak languages (Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Teleut, Tubalar) will help to 1) reconstruct their Proto-Kipchak and Proto-Turkic forms, 2) date the changes in the suffixes, 3) determine if these changes were areal in nature. Materials and methods: The grammars of the modern Turkic languages as well as the first Cyrillic books in Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Altai, Teleut, Tubalar have been analyzed using a comparative historical method. Results: The analysis reveals that the late Proto-Turkic form of the plural affix remained unchanged in most of the Turkic languages. In some of the Kipchak languages (Kazakh, Kyrgyz, certain dialects of Bashkir and Altai) located at the junction of the “-lVr-form vs.- tVr-form of the plural affix” territories, the *-lVr-form (in voiceless *-C-stems) and the *-nVr-form (in *-n, *-ŋ, *-m-stems) changed into *-tVr. Conclusion: The material of the first Kazakh books in Cyrillic shows that the change in the Kipchak plural affix in voiceless *-C-stem and in *-n, *-ŋ, *-m-stem words was quite late, took place due to contacts with the Kyrgyzs, and was not yet complete at the end of the 19th century.

Introduction. Interpretation of sign systems inherent to archaic texts of Olonkho epic remains an important issue within Yakut epic studies. The situation is complicated by the ongoing penetration of network structures into all spheres of human activity in modern society, and requires further systemic studies in the nature of mythological consciousness. The article examines the mythological image of Aal Luuk mas Tree which steadily functions in mythological contexts of the Yakut Olonkho epic. As is known, the ‘pith and marrow’ of any phenomenon can be comprehended only through the study of its formation. So, the work analyzes all stages of the development of the image, starting with the sources proper. Goals. The research aims to identify the sequence of stages in the formation of the mythological image of Aal Luuk mas, determine the model archetype within the ethnic mythopoetic consciousness, and demonstrate modeling and structuring functions thereof as the main generating idea in the Sakha view of the world. Materials and Methods. The work considers mythological views of the Sakha people reflected in Yakut Olonkho epic texts, and employs an interdisciplinary approach that includes various methods of modeling, structural-semiotic analysis, and deduction. Results. The stadial research shows that Olonkho texts contain fragments of mythological cosmogenesis, archaic motifs of the world egg, world sea, elements of zoomorphic space, anthropomorphic characters to have preceded the era of the Tree ― to further shape a complex image of Aal Luuk mas as a model that structures a multilevel Universe. The work mentions a geometric representation of the Tree in the form of a static pyramid and a dynamic cone identical to the Olonkho epic model of the world discovered by the author in previous studies. The paper concludes that in addition to the well-known ideas about the image of Aal Luuk mas as a symbol of fertility and the eternal cycle of life and death, the form and content of this archaic image largely determined the emergence of many sign systems nowadays integral to Yakut material and spiritual culture. And this circumstance proves instrumental in recognizing an invariant archetype scheme with the preservation of semantic ‘valencies’ in modern texts of the tradition, thus indicating further research prospects.

Introduction. The article provides a comparative analysis of artistic expressiveness means inherent to the Yakut Olonkho and Tuvan epics. The point is that poetics of the epic work Nurgun Bootur the Swift by P. A. Oyunsky recreated on the basis of folk tales has actually remained understudied, and this paper fills the gap. Goals. The work — as part of Yakut folklore studies — makes the first attempt to consider poetics and the system of artistic techniques of the Olonkho Nurgun Bootur the Swift in comparison to Tuvan heroic epics. Methods. The study employs a comprehensive approach that includes comparative historical and typological research methods. Results. The comparative analysis concludes that P. Oyunsky’s Nurgun Bootur the Swift is based on the principles of traditional folk epic, and reveals parallels to Tuvan heroic narratives. Special attention is paid to the means of artistic expression — hyperbole and comparison. There are functional semantic dependence and structural unity indicating a typological similarity of the epic works examined. The vivid language of Tuvan epic narratives and that of P. Oyunsky’s Olonkho are explicitly characterized by elements observed in heroic epic proper, and the poetic analysis shows the Yakut text is distinguished by artistic completeness. So, P. Oyunsky revived the Yakut heroic epic, enriched its conceptual/thematic essentials — to strengthen the unique poetic form.

Introduction. In mythologies of the world, the image of the snake ranks among the most studied characters and has various interpretations. In folklore of Turko-Mongols, it has also been a subject of multiple analyses. Still, the article makes a first attempt at revealing the image of the snake as a taboo sacred character in ritual folklore of the Mongolic peoples. Goals. The paper primarily seeks to identify functions of the snake therein, delineate the symbolic framework, reveal positive and negative connotations. Materials and Methods. The main research method employed is that of comparative analysis instrumental in examining the image of the snake as a semiotic sign. Interdisciplinary analysis of ethnographic and folklore materials, as well as comparisons to Turkic ritual actions, expand the boundaries of identifying the semantics of the image. Results. The snake in shamanic mythology of the Mongolic peoples appears in the hypostasis of the otherworldly Spirit closely associated with the shaman. Images of snakes in cave drawings, petroglyphs, shamanic ongons (sanctuaries), and costumes emphasize their sacred function. In shamanic practice, a snake image can be used as a protective element in the form of a walking-stick or whip. Symbolically, a snake in the form of straps implies a connotation of the animal’s magical abilities. The role of a mediator between worlds allows the snake simultaneously performing the function of a protective force. Functions of the snake in rites are interchangeable and complement each other. Shamanic texts of the Mongolic peoples consistently mention the main function of the snake is that of a carrier between worlds, which is closely related to its transforming abilities. Conclusions. The study resumes the snake in shamanic ritual actions of the Mongolic peoples — with positive connotations — functions as an assistant, intermediary, carrier, and envoy from another world that provides communication between realms. It also reveals patterns of transcoding the snake image in different semiotic systems, interconnectedness and interchangeability of sacral reptile functions.