Introduction. The article examines the structure and features of Ganden Phodrang (Tib. dGa’-ldan pho-brang) — Tibetan traditional Government founded by the 5th Dalai Lama Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682) in 1642 — in the context of interaction with institutions of the Qing administration in the 18th century. Diarchy based on the principles of unity of monastic and secular government (Tib. Сhos-srid) became the basis of the political and legal system of the Tibetan state and was reflected in some specifics of relations with Buddhist countries and peoples. The influence of the Qing Empire in the region by the end of the 18th century increased, and that was traced in formal characteristics but did not affect the functioning laws of Ganden Phodrang. Goals. The paper reviews and analyzes the origins, structure and features of the Dalai Lama’s traditional government Ganden Phodrang (1642–1959); identifies the main changes in the political structure of Tibet during the period of the greatest influence of the Qing government institutions in the 18th century; clarifies the position and role of the Dalai Lama as head of state, as well as the importance of regents and Qing ambans in governing the country. Materials and Methods. In addition to Qing sources, the article uses works by German and French Tibetan scholars (in English), as well as studies by Indian and Chinese Tibetologists. In Russian historiography, special attention is paid to the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas, their relations with the Qing emperors, as well as to such administrative institutions of the Qing as ambans, legislative acts, and the Golden urn lot. Methodologically, the study employs historical and comparative approaches, and the problem-chronological principle. Conclusions. The article concludes that the Dalai Lama’s Government was uniquely independent in the 18th century, and tulku regents possessed special ‘dual’ status and significance. It is necessary to emphasize the importance of studying the topic in the context of international polemics around classification of the socioeconomic structure of Tibet in the Middle Ages, and its status in relation to China.

Introduction. Peculiarities of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ in China’s national regions remain a poorly studied issue in modern Oriental studies. In this regard, Hulunbuir league of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region had been a strategically important and geopolitically significant region of the country. This territory bordered on the Mongolian People’s Republic and the USSR, therefore the central government of China considered its population potentially dangerous and marginal. The People’s Revolutionary Party of Inner Mongolia had two party factions in Hulunbuir league: the ‘unification’ faction, and the ‘justice’ one. The Maoists viewed the ‘Mongol Unification’ faction of the People’s Revolutionary Party of Inner Mongolia as a particularly dangerous, separatist trend. Goals. The paper aims to examine the political events and facts that took place in Hulunbuir league in 1965–1968. Objectives. Chronologically, the first objective is to examine the ideological and political campaigns —struggle against the ‘Four Olds’, and the ‘Four Purges’ — as a prehistory to the ‘Cultural Revolution’. The second objective is to analyze the cardinal changes that took place in the leadership of the party committee and local authorities in 1966–1968. The third problem studied deals with repressive activities of the Red Guards and Zaofan in Hulunbuir league, their division into two fighting camps. The fourth objective is to examine the creation of the aimag revolutionary committee and its activities in 1968. Materials. The work analyzes three collections of official documents published in the PRC. The information thereof is supplemented with materials from works by Russian and foreign authors. The article provides a comparative analysis of events and facts, translates some terms from Mongolian and Chinese. Results. The introducing part the paper examines a prehistory of the ‘Cultural Revolution’, the ideological and political campaigns. Its main part studies the events of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ in the region. In July of 1966, a special working group arrived in Hailar on behalf of the CPC Northern Bureau. Members of this group were cadre Party workers from Hubei and Shanxi provinces. In September of 1966, Party Committee Secretary of Hulunbuir league Qi Junshan and Deputy Secretary Zhargal were dismissed from their posts. Red Guards appeared in Hulunbuir in August of 1966 and began organizing ‘struggle meetings’. They actively recruited local Mongolian youth. In 1967, the Red Guards in Hulunbuir split into two opposing factions. They were confronting each other and for a while forgot about ‘class enemies’. Activities of the Red Guards were out of control of the regional authorities, and the situation needed stabilization. In March of 1967, the State Council and the Central Military Commission of the People’s Republic of China decided to create a military council in Hulunbuir league, also referred to as ‘the first line to contain the Revolution and stimulate production’. On December 20, 1967, a revolutionary committee was formed in Hailar. In March of 1968, Shangmin, a loyal follower of Mao Zedong, became the leader of the revolutionary committee. Making false accusations, he intensified repressions against members of the ‘Mongol Unification’ faction. Conclusions. Political events in Hulunbuir league in 1965–1968 were directly related to the situation in the whole autonomous region and country. Repressions against members of the ‘Mongol Unification’ faction were a distinctive feature of the repressive policy in the region. Still, the appointments of cadre Party workers from central provinces are a poorly understood issue. So, the ‘Cultural Revolution’ in this territory of Inner Mongolia obviously has local features that require further scientific research.

Introduction. The article chronologically covers the 1740s and 1750s. The period witnessed a rise in confrontational processes in the Crimean Khanate that were intensified by the growing dissatisfaction of the Nogai hordes with restrictive policies of the Crimean Khans. The opposition reached its peak by the late 1750s, and was marked by the Nogai rebellion of 1758 against the Crimean Khan Halim Giray and his sons. Many Kuban Nogais led by the ex-serasker of Kuban Seadet Giray took an active part in the revolt. Goals. The paper seeks to examine the role and place of Nogai Kuban in cross-border processes along the Northwest Caucasus that resulted from nomadic migrations. It is planned to identify the impact of Nogai Kuban (Kuban Horde) on the political and other processes that accompanied activities of the ruling Crimean Khans aimed at strengthening governing structures of their own within the Nogais hordes. Materials and Methods. The article analyzes 18th-century written historical sources, including ones newly introduced into scientific discourse. Those are mainly Russian official papers stored at federal and public archives of the country. The study employs special history research methods, such as the historical/genetic and historical/comparative ones. Results. The Kuban Horde played a key role in the provincial life of Kuban Region, a periphery of the Crimean Khanate. In the mid-18th century, the territory was being increasingly involved into state integration processes by the Girays. For example, the institution of serasker-sultans in Kuban was established. Various representatives of the Giray dynasty actively struggled for the position, including the family of Sultan Bahti Giray that had settled in Kuban. Conclusions. The discovered facts confirm the significance of Sultan Bahti Giray’s family in the life of Kuban Region after 1729. Kuban Nogais actively participated in the Crimean Khanate’s internal policies, and opposed the heavy-handed administrative decisions of the Girays. Their dissatisfaction was actively fueled by ex-seraskers, Gazi Giray and Seadet Giray, the sons of Sultan Bahti Giray. The paper proves Seadet Giray enjoyed a mass support of Kuban Nogais, which largely predetermined ― through pressure on kalga-sultan ― his appointment as serasker in 1755. The study reveals an instant connection between the ‘revolt’ of Bahti Giray’s sons against the Crimean Khan ― and subsequent activities of Kuban Nogais in the rebellion of 1758.

Introduction. The article discusses the sex and age structure of deceased Muslim individuals in Orenburg and Ufa Governorates in the mid-19th – early 20th centuries. Goals. The study aims to identify certain characteristics of sex and age structure thereof during the period under consideration. Materials and Methods. The paper mainly analyzes statistical data published by the Central Statistical Committee affiliated to the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire. Statistical, descriptive, and comparative-historical research methods were employed. Results. The study shows that the mortality rate of Muslim population of the Southern Urals in the examined period was significantly determined by infant and child mortality. Statistical data show that the level of infant mortality among Muslims was much lower than that among Orthodox Christians. This is explained by that Bashkir and Tatar women fed infants with breast milk all the way up to the age of 2, and introduced complementary feeding at relatively late stages. However, high child mortality rates resulted in high birth rates. In childhood, boys tended to die more often than girls. The situation changed after the age of 15. At the age of 15-45, mortality rates among Muslim women turned higher than those among men. Still, after the age of 45, male mortality increased again. Characteristic features of mortality among Muslims were as follows: a relatively low level of infant mortality (compared to that of Orthodox Christians), a high level of child mortality, increased mortality among fertile-aged women which sometimes proved several times as large as that among men of the same age, and others. Conclusions. The research materials demonstrate that mortality rates of Muslim population of the Orenburg and Ufa Governorates in the mid-19th – early 20th centuries were consistently lower than those of the entire population of the region, including Orthodox Christians. It is concluded that the demographic transition, i.e. the transition from a large to small family, among the Muslim peoples of the region had not yet begun then.

Introduction. The article analyzes the anti-plague efforts launched in the Kalmyk Steppe in 1914. The topic remains understudied in domestic historiography, and only a few papers dealing with Kalmykia’s public healthcare history contain occasional mentions of some epidemic diseases. So, the 1914 plague epidemic has been overlooked as well. And the study proves even more relevant nowadays when humanity is globally facing COVID-19 threats. Goals. The paper specifically aims to provide insight ― on the basis of primary archival sources newly introduced into scientific circulation ― to the struggle against plague in the Kalmyk Steppe in June and July of 1914. Materials and Methods. The work employs general scientific and specifically historical methods, with emphasis be laid on the principle of historicism, method of systemic analysis, and interdisciplinary approach. The latter is particularly important when it comes to examine an epidemic in a nomadic society across arid territories ― and all that took place over 100 years ago. The article deals with archival documents stored at the National Archive of Kalmykia (Kalmyk People’s Administration collection). Those files included in the catalogue of Public Healthcare Department contain materials on three episodes of plague in June and July of 1914, and prove instrumental in reconstructing the actual events in detail. Results. The article chronicles the dramatic vicissitudes of the 1914 plague epidemic in Kalmykia, and shows that all required and justified disinfection measures were assumed, e.g., a strict quarantine was established in the affected areas, sick individuals were isolated and healthy ones evacuated to a safe distance. The doctors were conducting a total inspection of the population in areas adjacent to those of outbreaks, which was followed by two more weeks of observations.

Introduction. The issue of Kalmykia-Mongolia cooperation in the 1920s still remains understudied both in Kalmyk and Mongolian historiography. Ever since the Kalmyks migrated to Russia-controlled territories, relations with Mongolia became irregular enough and were largely reduced to pilgrimage contacts en route to Tibet. But the 1920s witnessed an intensification therein. The period proved extremely harsh and definitely dramatic to both the nations: Kalmyk Steppe became an operational theater of the Russian Civil War, and Outer Mongolia sank into the ‘pot’ of social transformations and struggle for independence. And it is in those tough times that Kalmyks arrived in Mongolia as military instructors to arrange the formation and training of troop units for the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army. On the other hand, Mongolia delivered humanitarian aid to Kalmykia during the famine. Moreover, the Mongolian Government initiated a resettlement of starving Kalmyks to the country, with significant allowances to be funded. The military and humanitarian aspects have been examined by a number of Kalmyk and Mongolian researchers. Goals. The paper aims to provide additional data on the mentioned and other realms of cooperation during the period under consideration. Materials. The study analyzes new sources, archival materials, and scholarly works, including documents stored at the Central Archive of Russia’s Federal Security Service and ones introduced in Russia-Mongolia Military Cooperation. Results. The attachment of Kalmyks officers to Mongolian military units attests to that the Soviet Government recognized the exnomads should aptly adapt themselves to familiar conditions and cultural environment. Their primary objective was to help commanders of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Army create efficient military forces. And Mongolia did its best to support Kalmykia during the famine of 1921. In January of 1923, the Government of Mongolia initiated a resettlement of starving Kalmyks. Chronicles of relations show the key landmarks for the Soviet Government therein were ethnogenetic ties between the populations, linguistic and cultural affinities. Religious identity also proved an important unifying element.

Introduction. The article examines the development of Soviet mass media between the 1950s and 1980s through the example of the Bashkir Republic. Goals. The paper seeks to show the mentioned period was characterized by the most consistent and qualitative development of mass media. To facilitate this, the following objectives be tackled: analysis of the gradual development of television, radio and newspapers; identification of differences in the development of mass media; clarification of common features inherent thereto. Materials and Methods. The work analyzes archival materials, and employs methods of historicism, synthesis, alternative, and multidimensional approach to study the problem; the problem-chronological principle proved as instrumental. Results. The paper shows the then difficulties in radio, television and print media, and the measures taken by local party and Soviet authorities to improve the material, technical and personnel aspects, eliminate the problems of ‘feedback from the population’; the latter’s participation in the preparation of programs and publications. The article pays attention to the policy of the Soviet state aimed at supporting the republic’s print media, expanding the network of television and radio broadcasting, in particular, allocation of budget funds for the construction of new relay lines, repair of existing ones, and improvement of the network of service organizations, etc. This resulted in that the whole territory of the republic got covered with mass media networks. It also facilitated broader propaganda and agitation, faster distribution of information about changes at national and regional levels, creation of the illusion those media sources were essentially democratic. The work describes the reform of the media, introduction of new programs, and related changes in political censorship. Scientists, public and party figures, writers, poets — the population — took an active part in the preparation of programs and publications. This increased completeness and distribution levels of the media. However, during this period people still tended to keep an eye on the policy of the Party / state, and censorship of topics was as actual, which made the participation of Bashkir ASSR’s residents in that work somewhat illusory, although it did successfully expand (and strengthen) all ties between an individual — and the republic, city, or factory he / she worked at. The mentioned years witnessed a high demand for discussions over technical innovations, new methods of work, development of social infrastructure and housing, exchange of experiences between the Bashkir ASSR and other Soviet republics. Therefore, in those years, the number of documentaries, radio programs ‘from fields’ and ‘from workshops’ — and readership circulation — significantly increased, new printing agencies were established both in urban and rural areas. Conclusions. The paper concludes that despite all travails and vicissitudes it is in the 1950s – 1980s that mass media achieved their maximum social comprehensiveness and breadth.

Introduction. The collection of Sanskrit manuscripts of the Lotus Sutra is a richest one in the Serindian Collection of the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts (RAS, 27 call numbers). Most of the fragments of the Sanskrit Lotus Sutra from the Serindian Collection belong to the Central Asian edition, including the famous Kashgar manuscript by N. F. Petrovsky that is the most extensive version of the Sutra (about 400 folios) and the core of the Sanskrit manuscripts containing the text of ‘Saddharmapuṇḍarīka’. Most of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Lotus Sutra in the Serindian Collection were compiled in the southern oases of the Tarim Basin and made in poṭhī format. The texts of these manuscripts were written in Southern Turkestan Brāhmī in black ink on paper. According to paleographic data, these manuscripts can be dated to the 8th–9th centuries AD. Goals. The article seeks to introduce into academic circulation a new fragment of the Sanskrit Lotus Sutra from the Serindian Collection of the IOM (RAS). The new unpublished fragment of the Lotus Sutra stored under call number SI 6584 has been identified relatively recently. It is an excerpt from Chapter XVIII of the Lotus Sutra (‘The Chapter Describing the Religious Merit [Obtained through] Joyful Participation [in Dharma]’, ‘Anumodanāpuṇyanirdeśaparivartaḥ’). According to paleographic and codicological characteristics, the new fragment is very close to another previously published manuscript of the Lotus Sutra stored in the Serindian Collection under call number SI 1934. The article describes the external features of both manuscripts (SI 1934 and SI 6584), transliterates, translates and compares fragment SI 6584 to the other well-known texts of the Lotus Sutra. The paper also contains a facsimile reproduction of fragment SI 6584. Conclusions. As compared to other texts of the Lotus Sutra, fragment SI 6584 belongs to the Central Asian edition of ‘Saddharmapuṇḍarīka’, and its text is almost identical to that of the Kashgar manuscript by N. F. Petrovsky (fol. 335b–337a).

Introduction. The Story of Usun Debeskertu Khan is a notable monument of old Oirat literature. Its popularity and wide distribution are evidenced by numerous manuscript copies stored by scientific institutions of Russia, Mongolia and China. It consists of instructions attributed to the Tibetan King Tri Ralpacan referred to as the last ‘Dharma King’ of the ancient royal dynasty of Tibet. During his reign, he was able to strengthen the country’s nationhood, dismiss China’s protectorate, and get Buddhism established as the state religion. Indirectly, these events are reflected in the text of his homilies. However, this work was created not during his lifetime but much later — in the 15th century. Ralpacan’s death marked the end of the era of ‘religious kings’, and the country started disintegrating into a vast number of small principalities. The process of active revival and reformation of Buddhism would begin only in the 15th century directed by Je Tsongkhapa and further sustained by the emerged institution of the Dalai Lamas. And it is during this period that the book of Ralpacan’s homilies was compiled. In the mid-17th century, those were translated into Oirat by the famous Khoshut ruler Güshi Nomin Khan recognized in Tibet as a ‘Dharma King’. This circumstance makes it possible to consider the creation of the Oirat translation from the viewpoint of historical events that were taking place in the mid-17th century in Tibet and Dzungaria, as well as to reveal its actual contents. So, a textual space of one didactic text known in Mongolic literatures as The Story of Usun Debeskertu Khan connects names of two great ‘Dharma Kings’ — and two epochs of ‘religious kings’ of Tibetan Buddhism. Goals. The article seeks to introduce the Oirat text of The Story into scientific circulation, and analyzes its historical contents identifying the historical component of the work. Methods. Comparative historical analysis proves a key research method. Despite repeated publications of the text, the latter was never essentially analyzed for historical aspects. Results. And the analysis conducted shows that 1) Tibetan King Ralpacan’s homilies are based on the ‘two principles (guidelines)’ finally adopted in his era, 2) religious and secular norms proclaimed by the text attest to that Buddhism had been thus established as the state religion of Tibet, 3) the fact the text of Tibetan King Ralpacan’s homilies was translated into Oirat by Güshi Nomin Khan implies the latter should be equally revered as a ‘Dharma King’.

Introduction. The Tibetan-language written tradition is a most significant and distinctive cultural phenomenon of global significance, both in terms of amount and content, and in sophisticated approaches to classification and systematization. In recent decades, numerous projects have been initiated which aimed at digitizing the Tibetan heritage. Goals. The study seeks to identify and evaluate methodological and instrumental approaches to the presentation of Tibetan-language monuments in the global information space. Materials and Methods. The work includes a comparative analysis of the most successful international initiatives intended for preservation and actualization of the Tibetan written culture with the aid of modern information technologies. Firstly, these projects are interesting from the perspective of initial motivations of participants, characteristics of their target audience, and main methodologies implemented. Secondly, particular attention is paid to the consideration of the technical backend of the projects and certain specific features of the frontend information resources created within their framework, namely, online databases and web portals. Results. The analysis reveals the initiatives have been based on a variety of academic, religious and social motives that define both the target audience and organizational and methodological approaches. Thus, digital adaptation of the Tibetan written tradition appears in aspects of preservation of cultural heritage, actualization of its religious and social significance, historical reconstruction of cultural interaction in Central, Southern and Eastern Asia. The paper also clarifies that the proposed information resources form a continuous digital environment that gives a holistic representation of the content, history and current state of Tibetan written culture. Conclusions. The digital initiatives under consideration not only make an invaluable contribution to the development of academic Tibetan studies but also provide a form of social, informational and educational support to native communities spread across different countries and involved in Tibetan culture. With the use of the methodological and information technology developments described in the article, organizations that deal with the problems of preserving and studying historical and cultural heritage around the world could plan or correct their activities in the digital sphere.

Introduction. The article deals with Tibetan/Mongolian-to-Buryat translation (adaptation, Cyrillic) of Buddhist canonical texts. Goals. The study of causes and essence of the process is relevant enough, since the research problem relates to actual changes in the traditional book culture of Buryats, and issues of preserving the Buryat language in modern conditions. Materials. The work analyzes archaeographic works stored at the Institute of Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies SB RAS (2006-2015) as well as a set of Buddhist canonical texts published in Buryatia in the pre-revolutionary period and after 1991. Conclusions. Translation (adaptation) of Buddhist canonical texts from Tibetan and Mongolian into Buryat arose from changes in everyday religious practices of ordinary Buryat Buddhists. The three forms of Tibetan/Mongolian-to-Buryat translation make it possible to conclude on the level of works aimed at the preservation of the Buryat language in the structure of religious culture, as well as the level of Buddhist revival in Buryatia. Various forms of translation (adaptation) of Buddhist canonical texts show a competition between two directions of everyday religious reading (spelling) patterns: the Mongolian letter-by-letter one, and that close to literary Buryat. These forms mirror the modern discussion that arose in the 1990s about the correspondence between Mongolian and Buryat languages for further development of Buryat culture.

Introduction. Ursa Major is the constellation most venerated by Mongolic peoples. Goals. The article seeks to examine related beliefs traced in folklore and collected field data, reveal key mythological characteristics, and cast light upon diachronous layers in the beliefs of Kalmyks and Oirats (Western Mongols). So, the work aims at analyzing basic Kalmyk and Oirat folklore plots dealing with origins of the Great Bear in comparison to those of other Mongolic cultures; and at examining the concept of Ursa Major against the background of some calendar rites and revered mythological images with due regard of contemporary ceremonies addressed to the constellation. Materials. The paper analyzes folklore and ethnographic materials. Results. Part 1 of the article identifies main variants of mythological texts about Ursa Major (Mong. Долоон бурхан, Долоон өвгөн, Kalm. Долан бурхн, Долан одн) existing in Kalmyk and Oirat discourses, comparing the latter to myths of other Mongolic populations. It shows that basically the myths narrate about seven male characters (siblings, sworn brothers, or thieves) or an ox-man, though etymology of terms may tie the constellation (its emergence) to the archaic plot of day and night alternation as a chase of shedeer, and the solar theme at large. Part 2 further analyzes Ursa Major-related beliefs and compares the latter to some calendar rites and mythological images revered in Kalmyk and Oirat culture. The paper informs that the constellation was sometimes referred to by the Oirats as ‘Seven Maral Deer’ (Oir. Долоон марал), which implies our analysis may extend to the legend of how the heavenly hunter pursued a flock of she-deer. The Oirat oral tradition believes that both the characters of Ursa Major stories and Khukhedei Mergen the Hunter (whose chase made three she-deer turn into the three stars of Orion’s Belt therefore referred to by the Mongols as ‘Three She-Deer’, Mong. Гурван марал, Kalm. Һурвн марл) can be considered masters of the two horses tied to the ‘Golden Pole’ (i.e. Pole Star) — two stars of Ursa Minor. Oirats and Kalmyks also associate Ursa Major with thawing weather, protection of children, livestock (from wolves), and increase of its numbers, remission of sins — similar functions attributed to the White Old Man (Kalm. Цаhан аав) revered by the Oirats as the Lord of the Altai, while Kalmyks tend to view him as a protector deity of the nation, one of his manifestations being that of the Lord of the Year (Kalm. Җилин эзн). The article also analyzes contemporary Buddhist rites dealing with Ursa Major among Mongolic populations.

Introduction. Labor migration of Kalmykia’s rural population is a pressing challenge for the region. Permanent nature and endurance of the socioeconomic crisis in the agricultural sector of the republic have been adversely affecting the living standards of ordinary villagers. Lack of work opportunities and low salaries result in that the latter migrate en masse to the regional capital and even further. Goals. The study aims to analyze labor migration experiences of local rural dwellers. Materials and Methods. The paper summarizes a number of in-depth structured interviews. The qualitative research methods employed make it possible to view the issue in the eyes of unrelated actual participants of the migration processes, with certain attention paid to their backgrounds and life paths. Results. The work reveals one of the key economic factors underlying labor migration is the necessity to pay mortgage and consumer loans. And migration waves closely align with individual life cycles, such as marriage, divorce, births and even weddings of children. Some respondents reported their migrations were determined by certain adulthood stages of children. All these aspects give rise a new context of family and marriage relations: there emerge guest marriage patterns and changes in gender roles, e.g., in some families those are women who act as migrant workers. Roles of grandparents experience transformations forcing the latter to assume functions of the absent father of mother. Horizontal social networks come to the fore, including territorial and kindred ties. Such migrant labor experiences become a tool of economic strategies and mobility: people purchase dwellings in the city, and support children funding their plans with the earned money. So, migration of parents definitely serves a landmark for future migrations of their descendants. The results obtained attest to that the social profile of rural labor migrants contains quite a share of active individuals intensely motivated to work, ones who strive for better living standards and can adjust themselves to strenuous living / working conditions staying away from home and family.

Introduction. Elista grave field is a largest and most investigated one in the Ergeni Uplands, with the bulk of barrows and burials dated to the Bronze Age. Burial mound sites in the mentioned area are distinguished by linear positioning of tumuli — the most sizeable groups constitute chains of kurgans located transversally along watershed lines. Plateau-like ridges may comprise groups consisting of several parallel kurgan chains. Goals. The study aims at analyzing the correlation (ratio) between kurgans and burials of Early and Middle Bronze Age cultures within the grave field of Elista. Results. The work reveals some specific functions of under-kurgan rooms (space) in different cultures of the examined period. So, burial mounds of the Yamnaya culture contained one central burial each. In the Early Catacomb era, inlet burials were made only in ‘own’ barrows, while the arrived North Caucasian steppe culture gave rise to scattered cases of constructing inlet burials in culturally alien kurgans. Pit-catacomb burials were characterized by somewhat differing use of foreign culture barrows: one such construct virtually demolished the main burial in a Yamnaya kurgan; in another instance, the creation of an inlet burial was followed by heaping quite a plenty of soil which resulted in that the tumulus became several times as large. The distinctive feature is that all the monuments are arranged along the watershed without visible clustering. The largest group is that of kurgans and burials referred to as the East Manych Catacomb culture. Catacomb barrows were inserted into the existing chain, and dimensionally the bulk of them were virtually identical to previous monuments. Conclusions. The analysis shows research of Early and Middle Bronze Age burials should focus not only on quantitative properties in separate kurgans. When it comes to counting inlet burials it is critical to identify the cultural and chronological affiliation of the main burial. Moreover, it is important to obtain additional data, such whether the burial is located inside the tumulus or below the latter, whether there is any trace of later soil heaping, etc. This may be instrumental in discovering additional groups of inlet burials that vary from ‘common’ to ‘elite’ ones and could have been accompanied by several-fold enlargement of the initial (original) tumulus.

Goals. The article discusses results of studies that dealt with osteological collections obtained during excavations at Ufa-2 hillfort in 2013 and 2016. Special attention is paid to the dynamics in livestock structure during the period of the monument’s functioning. Results. Analysis of the bone material distribution in the cultural layer of the once inhabited part of the monument makes it possible to clarify the consistent pattern revealed earlier through materials of 2017 excavations. The lower stratum of the cultural layer (stage 1) is dominated by bones of sheep and goats, while the upper ones (stage 2) witness a decrease in the share thereof accompanied by a gradual increase in the number of horse bones. Stage 3 identified in 2017 is not clearly distinguishable in the materials obtained in 2013, which might be due to a violation of the cultural layer integrity in the area and employed methods of osteological materials selecting. 2016 archaeological survey of the moat gave rise to a hypothesis that the fortification (moat) was built in the 3rd–4th centuries AD and functioned for one or two centuries only to be further repeatedly filled with soil taken from the inhabited part of the site. Conclusions. Analysis of osteological collections from undisturbed layers of the moat (backfilling stages 1 and 2) shows that chronologically stage 1 can be correlated to an increase in the amount of Turbasli culture and Romanovka type ceramics in the cultural layer of the inhabited areas. And stage 2 may have taken shape by the middle or end of the chronological period. Thus, the findings confirm and clarify the hypothesis proposed on the basis of the analysis of archaeological data conducted.

Introduction. Each and every stone carving discovered in barrows is of great interest. And essentially rare zoomorphic / anthropomorphic stone sculptures from Kalmykia’s excavated sites are academically important for regional studies in general. Goals. The paper aims to examine a number of non-anthropomorphic stone carvings spotted in the territory of present-day Kalmykia. The zoomorphic sculptures depict a sheep’s head and an ox; special attention is paid to a compound construct. The samples under consideration are stored at the Palmov National Museum of Kalmykia. All of them have been introduced into scientific discourse already, while the article provides detailed descriptions thereto supplementing the latter with reviews of morphological peculiarities. Results. The animal depictions are unique materials for the research of antiquities of Eastern European steppe, and some of the sculptures have no analogues registered. All the sculptures were spotted within barrow borders but the barrows themselves — except for one dated to the period of ‘late nomads’ — were never duly excavated. The fact stone zoomorphic sculptures and other depictions (along with Polovtsian balbals) got that widespread makes it possible to conclude western areas of present-day Kalmykia used to be inhabited by representatives of different cultures dated to different historical eras. The introduced materials provide additional data on material reflection of religious pantheons of Old Turks to have inhabited Eastern European steppe in chronologically different periods.

The paper examines Mana Zänge (Kalm. Мана зäнгe, 1946–1947) journal and analyzes publishing activities of émigré Kalmyks. Goals. The work provides a general analysis of Kalmyk émigré publishing efforts in the late 1940s. Materials and Methods. The study focuses on journal articles and literary compositions published by Mana Zänge, describes the latter in detail, analyzes materials available, and draws conclusions. Special attention is paid to minor Kalmyk-language texts, which was due to that the periodical was primarily engaged in political journalism and related latest European news and events. In this context, news reviews of Russian arts and literary works by Russian Cossack writers would hold a special place in the journal’s narrative. Conclusions. Mana Zänge proved efficient enough in supporting social activities of émigré Kalmyks in Western Europe, developing democratic ideas and ethnic social thought. Moreover, the publication served as a meeting point for the whole of Kalmyk expatriate community vastly scattered across different European countries. So, émigré Kalmyks stayed aware of all political and cultural events that were taking place not only in Europe but also in Kalmykia and Russia at large. Though it must be said superficially invisible ties to Motherland and indirect participation in all meaningful events had been part of their lives virtually since the earliest days abroad.

Introduction. The article examines the motif of heroic duel (combat) as an important segment of the epic plot, and our comparative analysis of the nuclear basis of the motif and its variation list proves instrumental in delineating a structural-meaningful model motif invariant inherent to the epic of Mongolic peoples and depicting military conflicts. The issue has never been dealt with in this perspective. Goals. The work seeks to determine a variation row of the invariant motif in national epic traditions of Buryats, Kalmyks, Mongols, and Oirats. Materials. The variation row to be extracted from Mongolic epic narratives, namely: Buryat uligers of Abai Geser (Ungin version of P. Petrov) and Abai Geser Khubun (Ekhirit-Bulagat version of M. Emegenov), Baga Dorbet and Eelyan Ovla’s cycles of the Kalmyk Epic of Jangar, Xinjiang Oirat version of the Jangar, Oirat Mongolian tuuli texts titled Daini Kyurel and Khan Kharangui, and a Khalkha tuuli titled Agiyin Ulan Khan. Methods. To identify the typology and variable interpretations of the motif, the study uses elements of the comparative-typological and comparative-historical methods. The ‘heroic duel (combat)’ motif model is viewed as an element that hypothetically can act as the most important lever within the plot development mechanism, e.g., evolving from a motif ― a ‘simplest narrative unit’ ― to a plot, and vice versa. When it comes to identify the motif, its dualistic nature, variety of its properties and features noted by Russian and foreign scientists are taken into account. Results. The comparative insight into the motif of heroic duel (combat) makes it possible to single out the motif as an essential constructive and meaningful element of the plot, examine the degree of productivity and mobility of the motif in genetically related though stadially differing epics, as well as in ones belonging to various taletelling traditions, observe heroic confrontation patterns in epics of Mongolic peoples. Conclusions. The study concludes that motif invariants tend to form a plot basis, while motif variants express certain features (stadial, national, local) of each epic tradition.

Goals. The article aims to describe common riddle-telling patterns of the Don Kalmyks as of the late 19th century traced in works by I. Popov, a famous collector of Kalmyk folklore samples. Materials. One of the nine handwritten books constituting his academic heritage which is only partially introduced to researchers is titled ‘Riddles of the Don Kalmyks’. It includes 367 Clear Script texts accompanied by Russian translations and the author’s foreword which provides a brief description of the genre and reconstructs standard game situations explicitly demonstrating the functioning of riddles in the folk tradition. Results. Our hypothesis is that here I. Popov was following M. Castrén’s ‘Attempted Essay on the Buryat Language’ (sixteen riddles from the latter included in Popov’s book) because the ethnologist gives similar information on the Selenga Buryats. Results. According to I. Popov’s description, riddle-telling among Kalmyk children was a team game. As for individual players, there were tolgachi, i.e. leaders of two teams participants were divided into, and tuulchi — a master of riddles highly esteemed by other players. An important component of the game is mockery of losers, which can be found in many cultures as a form of punishment. I. Popov gives an example of one game where two teams ask numerical riddles (related to figures from one to ten) to each other. Comparison with traditions of other Turko-Mongols, such as Buryats and Altaians, shows that the Kalmyk tradition of riddle-telling shares similar features, e.g. connection of riddle-telling with the winter period, punishment as a compulsory element of the game. Still, it has some specific features. Firstly, for Kalmyks and Buryats this is a collective game, while in the Altaian tradition participants can play individually. The second important distinctive feature is the difference of age categories of players: in the Kalmyk tradition those are children, in the Buryat — young married couples, and in the Altaian — adults. The Appendix provides a facsimile of the I. Popov’s foreword to his ‘Riddles of the Don Kalmyks’.

Introduction. As is well known, the three Turkic dialectal continua — Tatar-Bashkir, Shor-Khakass-Chulym, and Karachay-Balkar ones — have developed quite distinctive reflexes of proto-Turkic palatal *j- and *č-, *-č(-). While compiling the Dialectological Atlas of Russia’s Turkic Languages, the authors were able to compose exact isoglosses of *j- and *č change in members of the mentioned continua, which made it also possible to partially reevaluate genetic clusterization on the basis of this data. Materials and Methods. Apart from the available publications and archival sources on the three areas in question, the analysis is based on the authors’ extensive field work that involves the use of a set of lexical questionnaires compiled in accordance with known aspects of the Turkic linguistic history. The source recordings for every speaker were turned into idiolectal audio-dictionaries and are linked to an electronic etymological database of the Turkic languages, each elicitation analyzed both with the comprehension method and the software for experimental phonetics. Results. As it turns out, this methodology of field work and post-analysis provides information crucial for detailed linguistic clusterization of dialectal continua in particular and any dialectal system in general. Traditionally, subtle problems of divergence and convergence, problems of archaic and innovative phenomena receive their solutions. The results are as follows. Palatal *j- and *č in the languages of the Khakass-Shor-Chulym group have changed by a strict series of rules none of which could be simultaneous, nor could follow each other in a different order. Thus, the two Middle Chulym dialects — Melet and Tutal ones — prove to lack an immediate linguistic ancestor, the Tutal ‘dialect’ is an archaic version of Mrassu Shor, while Melet is closely related to Kyzyl Khakass. Reflexes of *j- and *č are also principal isoglosses for a previously undocumented Khakass dialect, which does not have any specific affinity with Saghai, Kyzyl and Kachin dialects. Areal analysis of KarachayBalkar shows that dz < proto-Turkic *j- is a secondary development, while, on the other hand, it is finally proven that reflexes *j- > dz~dʑ and *j- > ʑ~z form a more significant isogloss. And for the Tatar-Bashkir dialectal continuum, there were identified three main types of proto-Turkic *jreflexation; a chronology for these three types intermixing during the early period of the continuum is also proposed.

Introduction. The article examines the color term al ‘pink; scarlet’ in Turkic languages. Goals. The study aims at considering the lexeme in comparative historical and lexical-semantic perspectives. This involves a number of objectives, such as to review and analyze hypotheses on etymology of the word, identify the functioning of the lexeme in ancient and modern languages, determine characteristics of use of the word’s meanings in certain Turkic languages, delineate common Turkic and specific (belonging to a separate subgroup) development trends of the lexeme al. Materials and Methods. To facilitate the latter, an extensive theoretical and source base on Turkic languages is employed: when it comes to origins of the word, special attention is paid to fundamental scientific works on Turkic and Altai etymologies; ancient Turkic, medieval written monuments, lexicographic works on particular Turkic languages are examined to reveal semantic features of the word in ancient and modern languages. In general, the work proves topical due to the absence of any comprehensive study dealing with etymology, development and functioning of the token in Turkic languages. Results. The study reveals that the al lexeme is essentially ancient: scholars have restored its Pre-Turkic (*Āl) and Pre-Altaic (*ŋiōle) forms, with its Nostratic origin identified. The word is frequently traced in written sources of the Turks from earliest monuments. The token al is integral to most Turkic languages, except for the Chuvash, Altai, Tuva, Karachay-Balkar, and Karakalpak ones. In Yakut and Khakass, the lexeme ālaj is perceived as a loanword. Thus, the gloss al was widely used mainly in Western Turkic languages. In ancient and modern Turkic languages, the word al has meanings as follows: ‘scarlet, pink, ruddy’, ‘orange’, ‘brown’, ‘red, bay (horse coat color)’, ‘young’, ‘yellow’, ‘noble’, ‘magical’, ‘bright, motley’, and some substantives ― ‘seal, credential issued by Khans’, ‘rouge’, ‘woman’s headwear’. Conclusions. The ancient Turkic colour term al is (was) not universally distributed in all Turkic languages. The wide (though uneven) use of the word and further development of its semantics occurs in the Kipchak and Oghuz languages where the gloss al has a number of additional connotative and metaphorical meanings.

Introduction. The article provides a comprehensive study of free and lexicalized phrases, idioms of phraseological type, paired-repeated and complex constructions formed using the indicator designating variegated color, the term-forming onomastic component of the word ola / ala — ‘variegated’; ‘spotted’, ‘pockmarked’; ‘piebald’ (about animal coat colors); ‘multicolor stripped’, ‘striped’; ‘multicolored’ — participating in the categorization of mixed segments of the linguo-color space. It identifies certain distinctive and integrating features thereof in terms of different language levels and lexicographic interpretation. Goals. The work seeks to examine combinations of the attributive component ola / ala with denotative nouns and non-semantic components in descriptive phrases, expressing (depending on respective contextual environments) both an adverbial feature and words referred to as ‘transitional’. Materials and Methods. The work analyzes materials of the Uzbek and Karachay-Balkar languages. To identify the differential and integrating features of the lexeme ola / ala, the paper analyzes the lexical-semantic, lexical-grammatical, word-formation properties of secondary nomination syntactic units formed as a result of selective combination with some inventory units of morphology, their functional and stylistic features in terms of stylistic structures of examined texts. The main research methods are descriptive and comparative ones, as well as that of contextual analysis. Results. The insight into issues related to the formation and development of the lexicalsemantic structure of paired-repeated constructions formed according to the full repetition model used in the common nominative sense reveals that the repeated component — which is a phonetically modified version of the reference word — only partially affects the formation of the semantic content of ‘doubled names’, strengthening their semantic structure to a certain extent.

Introduction. The article reviews background studies on the Mansi language and its dialects performed by European and Russian (Soviet) linguists. Goals. The paper seeks to provide a comprehensive historical description of Mansi language research. Methods. The descriptive and comparative-historical methods have been employed thereto. Results. The work arranges the studies chronologically — from earliest research activities to contemporary ones — highlighting most essential achievements. Mansi is one of the least studied languages with earliest written accounts dating to the 16th-17th centuries. The earliest Mansi dictionaries were compiled by explorers and missionaries (I. Kuroedov, S. Cherkalov, P. S. Pallas, etc.) in the 18th century. In the 19th century, the Mansi language officially became a subject of scientific research, and expeditions by Finnish and Hungarian linguists (Antal Reguly, August Engelbrekt Ahlqvist, Bernát Munkácsi, Artturi Kannisto) proved the first field studies. In the 20th century, quite a number of European scientists have contributed to Mansi language research, namely: W. Steinitz, L. Honti, K. F. Кarjalainen, M. Bakró-Nagy, K. Rédei, M. Szilasi, and others. In Russia, the first Mansi studies were initiated by Soviet scholars in the 1930s (V. Chernetsov, A. Balandin). Studies in spoken Mansi evolved into a national Cyrillic alphabet, and for the first time ever there were published comprehensive works dealing with Mansi studies, textbooks on Mansi phonetics, morphology, and grammar. Experimental phonetic explorations emerged in the mid-to-late 20th century resulting in new Mansi dictionaries (A. Sainakhova, T. FrankKamenetskaya, E. Rombandeeva, and others). Mansi studies in the 21st century in Russia and Europe have reached a brand new level: there appeared online research laboratories and linguistic platforms which make it possible to further investigate the Mansi language and verify up-to-date materials.

Introduction. The Bashkir language ― like other Turkic languages ― contains no category of grammatical gender explicitly associated with the gender of animate nouns. There are only lexical means of gender designation. Goals. In this regard, the article attempts to study features of the lexical means employed to represent sex (gender) in the Bashkir language. Materials and Methods. The insight into specifics of gender in the Bashkir language includes the use of certain research methods, such as the method of continuous sampling, the comparative one, and that of statistical analysis. Results. The linguistic analysis reveals that the meaning of sex (gender) in the Bashkir language is manifested by lexical-semantic (gender-marked lexemes, with qualifier words) and derivational means. Semantics of male and female gender in Bashkir discourse is to be traced in such lexical and semantic groups as terms of kinship, family relations, names of professions, anthroponyms. Basically, gender in the Bashkir language is represented by separate multi-root lexemes. However, there are also some kinship terms and anthroponyms denoting females which are derived from masculine names. The same phenomenon is observed in borrowed names of professions when a female specialty term derives from a masculine form with the aid of the affix -ә. In the original vocabulary, there is no gender differentiation according to professional affiliation. Here, to concretize a person’s gender qualifier words that contain gender semantics ― qatyn ‘woman’, ir ‘man’, apaj ‘sister, aunt’, qyδ ‘girl’, and others ― are used. The study emphasizes there are obvious gender asymmetries in the Bashkir language since resulting from the prevalence of words to express the concepts ‘man’ and ‘masculine’, and the lack of lexemes representing the concepts ‘woman’ and ‘feminine’. This attests to androcentricity of the Bashkir language.